Material Systems: Early Makers in Parallel

Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) extends its exploration into the workshops of early settlements, where clay, metal, and stone became the earliest archives of human intention. When read together, their crafts reveal parallel approaches to form, method, and meaning.

Across both regions, standardization appears as a defining feature. In Mehrgarh, potters mastered consistent forms, bead-makers aligned sizes with remarkable accuracy, and tools followed familiar outlines, indicating shared benchmarks within the community. Mesopotamian workshops show a similar organizing impulse: patterned bowls, rhythmic vessel shapes, and clay tablets measured with precision. This drive for consistency suggests not imitation, but a shared understanding: that order in objects reflected stability in life.

Motifs create another long thread. Mehrgarh’s geometric vocabulary; lines, dots, and repetitive forms reflect a steady visual language. Mesopotamian artisans built their own grammar of bands, waves, and segmented spacing. Though distinct in style, the underlying impulse; to order surface and anchor identity, remains remarkably aligned.

Technology deepened these expressions. Mehrgarh’s early kilns, refined firing methods, and bead-drilling gave material a new precision. Mesopotamia’s advances in kiln innovations, mold techniques, and early metallurgy expanded the material spectrum. Together, these developments show societies experimenting and how they learned to shape material behavior with increasing confidence.

IRVI interprets these parallels as early points of material dialogue across Western and South Asia; a shared human tendency to create order through craft. The next chapter turns to movement itself; the desert paths, mountain corridors, and coastal routes where such knowledge may have travelled long before structured exchange began.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Earth and Grain: The Agricultural Parallel

Continuing its exploration of early settlements, Indus River Valley Institute now turns to the fields and riverbanks that sustained both Mehrgarh and Mesopotamia. With each region now studied on its own terms, this chapter traces the parallels of their agricultural beginnings where ecological pressures produced shared strategies of subsistence.

Farming in both regions began with simple choices that carried long memories. At Mehrgarh, communities cultivated wheat and barley, relying on seasonal runoff from the Bolan foothills, allowing simple irrigation and controlled cultivation. Mesopotamian communities, however, faced the irregular floods of the Tigris and Euphrates, learning to work with clay-silt soils and unpredictable currents. Across these landscapes, farmers learned to guide water, manage soil, and plan for seasons; choices that formed the long-term systems of settlement. Irrigation, once simple and seasonal, gradually deepened into channels and controlled flows, marking the shift from survival to a more intentional design of landscape.

Domestication patterns reinforce these links. Both regions relied on cattle, sheep, and goats, reflecting parallel approaches to food, labor, and mobility. Storage pits, granaries, and clay-lined containers appear in both records, showing how surplus and security became shared concerns. Though their geographies differed, findings from both regions suggest early experimentation with crop rotation and mixed plantation, showing a similar learning pattern focused not only on growing food but also on stabilizing soil and sustaining fields across generations; revealing adaptation and growing sense of continuity.

These parallels are not merely technical; seen together, these agrarian echoes trace the earliest points of correspondence between South Asia and Western Asia. IRVI interprets these developments as early signs of a wider human dialogue. The next chapter will shift from subsistence to craftsmanship, tracing how shared technologies and aesthetics emerged across these early worlds.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Mesopotamia: The Cradle of Rivers

Following the wider arc of early human landscapes Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) now moves westward to Mesopotamia; it enters our series as another center where settled life and urban imagination first took shape. Much like Mehrgarh, Mesopotamia offers an essential lens for understanding how scattered communities rose from the broad alluvial plains of Southwest Asia, creating a different but equally powerful trajectory of civilization.

The region was bound to the rivers, between the Tigris and Euphrates where, from the sixth millennium BCE onward irrigation channels, levees, and basin systems became the backbone of life, enabling harvest cycles that demanded coordination and collective labour. Out of this, the earliest ideas of structured governance emerged: councils, temple authorities, and eventually the rulers who oversaw the flow of both water and people.

Architecture marked the next leap. Mudbrick homes grew into neighbourhoods, and evolved into city-states like Uruk, Eridu, and Lagash. Monumental temples rose at their cores, culminating into ziggurats; layered structure that symbolized both spiritual order and civic identity. These spaces reveal how early Mesopotamian communities conceived hierarchy and ritual.

Material culture advanced with equal intention. Cylinder seals, pottery with fine linear precision, and early metallurgy point to a world where craft carried memory and meaning. Mesopotamia’s artisans produced standardized weights, administrative tokens, and objects of trade, laying the groundwork for economic systems that would link them to neighbouring regions, including the lands that would later form South Asia’s Indus world.

The earliest cuneiform tablets, tracking grain, labour, and storage; show a society shifting from memory to record, from oral exchange to accountable systems. This innovation made Mesopotamia not just a settlement but a civilizational blueprint.

In our next reading, we shift into agricultural parallels that bring Mehrgarh and Mesopotamia into meaningful conversation.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

"Mehrgarh: The First Foundations of South Asia"

Following the trail of South Asia’s deep past, Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) turns to Mehrgarh; a site near the Bolan Pass that, around 7000 BCE, became one of the region’s first centers of settled life. Here, inhabitants transformed subsistence into systems that cultivated wheat and barley, domesticating cattle, sheep, and goats, and developing rudimentary irrigation systems to harness seasonal waters; that would sustain generations.

Mehrgarh’s settlements reveal a remarkable early attention to order and communal life. Homes, granaries, and shared courtyards were carefully positioned, reflecting not only practical needs but also social coordination and emerging hierarchies. Storage pits, baking platforms, and compound layouts suggest planning for both daily sustenance and seasonal cycles, while narrow pathways between houses indicate an early sense of urban rhythm in even modest settlements. Even in these simple structures, principles of design: proportion, repetition, and functional utility; foreshadowed concepts that would later define Indus cities.

Material culture speaks with equal clarity. Pottery, beads, and ornaments reveal precision, and stylistic continuity. Decorative motifs: crosses, chevrons, and parallel lines; were repeated across vessels and personal adornments, signaling memory, method, and a shared visual language.

While burial practices and ceremonial objects further highlight ritual and social consciousness, suggesting a culture attentive to lineage, and belief. In Mehrgarh, daily life, craft, and belief were intertwined, laying a disciplined foundation for South Asia’s first long-term settlements.

Mehrgarh stands as the first node of South Asia’s cultural trajectory; a proto-civilization that seeded principles of agriculture, architecture, and craft that would persist in the Indus Valley. IRVI reads these remnants as the first threads in a continuum of civilization. In the next installment, we move to Mesopotamia that would intersect with the emerging South Asian world.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

*The Foundations of Exchange: Mehrgarh and Mesopotamia*

Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s trail of South Asia’s deep past now trace the dialogue thatbegan before the Indus itself; the origins of exchange to an even earlier world where communities in Mehrgarh and Mesopotamia began shaping the first rhythms of civilization.

Mehrgarh, nestled near the Bolan Pass in Balochistan, was among South Asia’s first agricultural hubs. Around 7000 BCE, its people learned to shape earth into permanence: building mudbrick homes, storing grain, and crafting ornaments from shell, terracotta, and stone. Across the Mesopotamian plains, a similar rhythm unfolded; architecture based on modular design, early irrigation, and shared ceremonial spaces. The parallels suggest not imitation, but a shared Neolithic momentum, where communities in distant valleys found resonance in similar responses to their environment.

While these cultures grew apart geographically, traces hint at contact; beads, shells, and lapis lazuli from the hills of Balochistan and Badakhshan found their way into Mesopotamian sites, suggesting a proto-network of exchange already flowed along the highlands and coastlines.

This period marks more than coincidence; it reveals an early technological and symbolic dialogue. From pottery techniques to beadwork and metallurgy, both civilizations were shaping identities through craft. Mehrgarh, in this sense, stands as the prelude to dialogue; the moment when South Asia entered the early rhythm of interconnection. It set both material and conceptual foundations for what would later become the Indus–Mesopotamian trade that would flourish millennia later.

IRVI see this stage as the prologue to continuity for Mehrgarh to be an early crossroad; where the idea of cultural correspondence first began to take shape and exchange ceased to be only material, linking communities through shared material culture and evolving urban thought.

In the next part, we move from foundation to form; exploring how architecture and spatial design reveal the deep conversation between Mesopotamia and early South Asian settlements.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

"From Decline to Continuity: The Afterlife of the Indus Civilization"

The journey through the Indus, as we’ve followed it at the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), moves now from riverine origins to intricate networks toward what endured beyond both; the subtle continuities that survived its fall.

Around 1900 BCE, the great cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro began to shrink. Climate models suggest weakening monsoons, altered river courses, and rising soil salinity disrupted agricultural and settlement stability. The archaeological record shows the evidence of standardized weights, seals faded and trade networks grew faint. Yet beneath this seeming collapse, life continued; smaller settlements appeared along new riverbanks, following the drying Ghaggar-Hakra river system; once a fertile corridor, into Gujarat, Punjab, and the Gangetic plains; reshaping settlement zones that still carried Indus echoes.

Sites such as Daimabad, Bhagatrav, and Alamgirpur show this adaptive phase, where older techniques met new geographies. The Late Harappan “Cemetery H” pottery, the Jhukar culture in Sindh, and the Rangpur horizon in Gujarat bear continuity in craft and essence; Jhukar ceramics retained Harappan shapes with simpler motifs, while Cemetery H pottery introduced new ochre tones. Monumental design gave way to smaller expressions; vessels, ornaments, and domestic layouts that carried the same geometric restraint. The Indus discipline became quieter but not lost; visible in proportions, symmetry, and measured construction that suggest memory turned into method, a quiet order surviving through change.

From there, the Indus legacy wove into later South Asian cultures. In folk rituals of the Punjab plains, temple patterns of Gujarat, and settlement plans across Sindh, the sense of measured space endured. In following this arc, we close our series by finding that the Indus stands not as a lost world but as a living undercurrent. IRVI’s work read this as the civilization’s quiet evolution; where urban rhythm softened into rural life and cultural persistence.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

The scholar who developed many of the core concepts of economics we use today...had been erased from textbooks.

If you study economics, why haven't you heard of North African scholar hashtag#IbnKhaldun?

He conceptualised:

- the law of supply and demand (500 years before Adam Smith)

- the notion of a fiscal stimulus (before Keynes!)

a labour theory of value (before Marx).

- the inverted-U relationship between tax rates and government revenued (what we call Laffer curve today, even if Arthur Laffer used Khaldun's theory)

Why does it matter to restore his intellectual legacy today? Watch our 3min animated video to find out: https://lnkd.in/e8nNwhNk

"Networks of Meaning: Trade, Symbols, and the Language of Exchange"

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), our reading of the Indus continues beyond its cities; into the spaces where design met movement. The civilization’s order, as explored in our previous segment, was not bound by walls or wells; it extended outward through the flow of people, ideas, and exchange. What began as collective design within cities, evolved into a living network of meaning.

Boats from Lothal’s dockyards sailed toward the Persian Gulf, while overland paths linked Harappa with distant Sumerian towns. Beads, shells, and seals moved along these corridors; but more than material goods, they carried shared understandings. The famed unicorn seal, the standardized weights, the repeated animal motifs; each served as a vessel of trust and recognition, which spoke across borders. These exchanges reveal how the Indus world was part of a larger web of ancient connectivity; where artistry and accuracy built credibility long before written treaties existed. Merchants and craftsmen relied on uniformity to sustain faith in unseen partners, turning design into diplomacy.

Through these movements, ideas travelled as silently as objects; shaping artistic forms, rituals, and shared visual codes that transcended geography. Even without a deciphered script, the Indus left a language of order that spoke through texture, pattern, and proportion. Trade in the Indus was not a simple act of exchange; it was a cultural dialogue. Through precision and repetition, the civilization shaped an early system of communication that reflected both aesthetic intention and social coherence, bridging regions through meaning as much as through material.

In tracing these remnants, IRVI continues to read the Indus as a civilization of design; one that transformed its spatial harmony into networks of meaning.

In the next part of this series, we turn to what followed when these networks began to fade; how continuity emerged through decline, and how the Indus legacy persisted quietly through later traditions.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

*Shaping Order and Identity: How Indus Cities Reflected Collective Design*

As the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) continues its journey along the Indus, we move from the rivers that nurtured life to the cities that shaped it. This chapter explores how the Indus people translated the flowing logic of rivers into urban rhythm, and where settlement became a shared philosophy of order.

Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Dholavira were not monuments of power but expressions of balance. Their precision is evident from wide streets to narrow lanes, from public wells to private bathing rooms. A grid-like layout, uniform bricks, and systematic drainage all reflected planning rooted in flow and function. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro, built with baked bricks and waterproof plaster, speaks of a community that valued symmetry, hygiene, and shared order over hierarchy. This was a civilization that built for coherence over spectacle, creating one of the earliest languages of design.

Public buildings, storage areas, and workshops point to shared responsibilities. The absence of royal palaces or massive temples reveals an order based on participation, not rule. Even their waste systems covered drains and soak pits show remarkable urban foresight. Uniformity across vast distances hints at a connected administration that prized efficiency over dominance.

Material culture mirrored this discipline. Pottery, ornaments, tools, and seals all show pattern and proportion everyday objects shaped by the same logic as their cities. In every design, there was restraint; in every rhythm, a respect for continuity. Life in the Indus world was measured, not imposed, a choreography between utility and grace. In reading these traces, IRVI sees the Indus as a civilization of design. Next, we follow how their structured harmony shaped the movement of goods and ideas.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

*Origins and Geography: Where the Rivers Shaped the First Towns*

Guided by Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s exploration of South Asia’s earliest landscapes, this chapter turns to the geography that shaped the Indus Valley Civilization. If the Indus represented order and connectivity, its foundation lay in the rivers that sustained life across present-day Pakistan and northwestern India.

The Indus River system; joined by tributaries like the Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and the now-dry Ghaggar-Hakra; created an ecological corridor ideal for agriculture and trade. Annual floods deposited nutrient-rich silt, allowing early communities to experiment with cultivation and permanent settlement. These environments encouraged the gradual shift from nomadic life to agrarian villages, as seen in sites such as Mehrgarh (c. 7000 BCE). Its mud-brick architecture, granaries, and figurines reveal a society already adapting its environment.

Over time, these scattered settlements began to echo a shared rhythm; in tools, pottery, and spatial order; marking the early stages of cultural cohesion across the Indus plains. Geography also defined accessibility. The western passes connected the plains with Central Asia and Iran, while the southern delta opened routes to the Arabian Sea. This strategic location allowed for both isolation and exchange, shaping the Indus world as distinct yet connected to neighboring regions.

By the third millennium BCE, cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had emerged, this understanding of geography had already matured into order; these patterns had evolved into complex urban centers that hinted at administrative thought and long-distance interaction. Flood control, water management, and spatial awareness would soon become central to the civilization’s identity; themes explored in the next chapter on urban planning and material life.

For IRVI, revisiting these origins is a way of remembering that civilization begins not with monuments, but with the meeting of water, land, and imagination.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

*Tracing the Indus: The Rise, Rhythm, and Transformation of an Ancient Civilization*

In Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s pursuit to rediscover South Asia’s ancient currents, the Indus stands as the first thread; that once carried cities, stories, and the pulse of an entire civilization. The story of the Indus is, in essence, an exploration of how geography, innovation, and time shaped one of humanity’s earliest urban worlds. Along the fertile floodplains that now stretch across Pakistan and northwest India, this civilization quietly took form long before the rise of empires. Between 2600 and 1900 BCE, it flourished beside Egypt and Mesopotamia, mirroring their grandeur yet remaining distinctly its own.

The rhythm of this civilization was defined by its rivers; the Indus, Ravi, Sutlej, and Ghaggar-Hakra; which shaped not only its landscape but its sense of life and order. From Harappa to Mohenjo-daro, cities rose with remarkable precision: gridded streets, advanced drainage, and standardized bricks; signs of civic discipline rather than royal command. No towering palaces, only a quiet structure that reflected collective balance and intent.

Trade stretched across mountains and sea routes alike, linking the Indus with distant regions in Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Arabia. Stones, metals, and seals crossed borders, carrying coded motifs that spoke of shared meaning even without a known script Theirs was a civilization of subtle communication; one that spoke through design, craft, and ritual rather than conquest.

By 1900 BCE, climate shifts, altered river courses, and trade disruptions began to slow this urban rhythm. Cities declined, populations scattered, and life transitioned into smaller rural settlements. Yet the essence of the Indus endured; in craft traditions, settlement patterns, and the quiet persistence of its worldview that still ripples through South Asian life.

This first blog opens the series as a tracing of origins; each part that follows, will delve deeper into its landscape, design, exchange, and evolution.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), our work often traces how connections shape civilizations. The Karakoram Highway is one such connection; a road that illustrates together history, geopolitics, and culture, often called the “Eighth Wonder of the World.” Stretching over 1,300 kilometers, it connects Pakistan with China through one of the most dramatic mountain landscapes on earth.

Historically, this corridor was never a blank slate. Long before modern engineering, traders, pilgrims, and armies passed through these mountains as part of the ancient Silk Road. Buddhist monks carried manuscripts from Taxila and Gandhara, through these mountains toward Central Asia, while caravans bore jade, silk, and spices; leaving behind shrines, languages, and hybrid art forms. The highway built in the 20th century follows a path deeply inscribed by centuries of exchange, making it a modern rearticulation of older ties. More than a feat of engineering, it is a testament to a partnership that altered the balance of South Asian geopolitics.

As a geopolitical artery, the Karakoram Highway now anchors the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor and symbolizes a friendship forged during World War. While praised as a feat of cooperation, it also reflects broader shifts in power, trade, and security across South and Central Asia. For many, it embodies opportunity; for others, it raises questions about sovereignty, dependency, and the uneven impacts of globalization.

Culturally, the road has become a stage for encounters. Villages along the route witness tourists, truck artists, and mountaineers crossing paths. The decorated Pakistani trucks traveling the highway themselves are mobile art galleries, while Chinese influence arrives in the form of goods, businesses, and language. These exchanges blur the line between local and foreign, creating a living tapestry of identities.

The Karakoram Highway is a living metaphor for how human history winds through landscapes. IRVI sees it as a rare convergence and a reminder that such endeavors reshape not only landscapes but entire communities.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

As the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) traces its deltaic path from Thatta to the shoreline, it now faces a fragile landscape; where ecology, heritage, and survival are entwined and endangered.

The Indus Delta, once a wide oasis at the river’s mouth, now stands at risk. Reduced water flow, rising sea levels, and unchecked industrial activities have eroded the natural balance. What was once thriving is shrinking fast, leaving saline lands, dying mangroves, and displaced families.

Mangrove forests, the delta’s living buffer, have been reduced from roughly 600,000 hectares to under 100,000, fracturing ecosystems and livelihoods alike. These coastal guardians, once vast, are now segments of a fractured defense against erosion and storms. Local communities, especially in villages like Mero Deblo, have rallied for restoration, planting mangroves, protecting nurseries, and diversifying income through sustainable fishing and crab farming. Pollution and industrial run-off continue to corrode wetlands and fisheries. The dwindling wetlands have disrupted ancient migratory routes for birds and imperiled endemic species like the Indus dolphin. Sea intrusion has rendered once-fertile farmlands barren, while rising salinity in groundwater threatens drinking water access for thousands of delta residents.

Heritage sites along the delta, some linked to centuries-old trade and spiritual practices, are increasingly threatened by neglect and climate stress. What fades here is not only biodiversity but also the intangible heritage of communities who inherit a relationship with water shaped across generations. Delta residents describe this as a cultural and ecological tragedy. Institutions and activists now urge the government to honor water-sharing accords and release freshwater into the delta every year to arrest its rapid decline.

Through this lens, IRVI seeks to rehold the thread; that the delta’s fragility is South Asia’s own, and calls for dialogue, preservation, and collective responsibility, making it central to our ongoing work to connect histories of place with the futures they continue to shape.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Today Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) journeys to the Indus delta, where Thatta once thrived as the gateway between river and sea. Set by the Indus delta, Thatta grew into a bustling conduit between inland caravans and Indian Ocean routes, a market where Sindh’s fertile fields and exquisite crafts met ships bound for Arabia, East Africa, and distant Southeast Asia. Indigo, cotton, and carved wares moved out; horses, books, fine textiles, and glazed ceramics came in. Geography made the commerce; the commerce, in turn, made the city flourish.

Trade wealth was never confined to storerooms. It flowed into shrines and seats of rule. The Makli necropolis, sprawling across a ridge for 6.5 kilometers, chronicles four centuries of dynasties; Samma to Mughal, etched in brick and stone. Central Asian domes, Gujarati ornament, Persian flourishes, and Sindhi restraint combine into a single language: calligraphy, rosettes, and geometry subdued by desert light. Makli is a dialogue of a thousand architects, artisans, and patrons; all speaking Thatta.

Sindh’s early embrace of Islam set the stage for South Asia’s coastal exchanges, but it was merchants, scholars, and Sufis who kept the stage lit, between the chants of devotion and the clatter of ledgers; ritual, inscription, and patronage weaved with them, layered into a recognizably South Asian Islam that carried outward again through trade.

In the Shah Jahan Mosque, the currents of trade are audible. Its domes, nearly a hundred in number, balance brick and glaze so finely that the air itself carries a voice across the prayer hall. The palette recalls Central Asia, but the design is anchored in Sindh; evidence of ideas traveling with caravans and staying to take root.

When the Indus shifted and maritime priorities moved, Thatta’s tide fell. Yet its archive remains, arguing for a South Asia that absorbed influences without surrendering its Sindhi hand. In tracing Thatta’s arc from river to ocean to ruin, IRVI charts how trade underwrote art and how faith traveled with goods, placing the delta city back on South Asia’s living map.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

IRVI-UNESCO WHV | (Sept 5-15) | Islamabad.

As part of our UNESCO WHV initiative on “hashtag#Conservation through hashtag#Gamification,” the IRVI team undertook another field visit to the Jaulian Monastery Taxila, a Kushan-period (2nd–5th century CE) Buddhist monastic complex that forms part of the Taxila World Heritage ensemble.The visit was guided by Mr. Anjum Dara, Deputy Director of Archeology, Punjab.

IRVI made this visit not to map out a direct “level” for ‘Whispers of Taxila’ but to deepen our understanding of how Buddhist hashtag#architecture and hashtag#land relationship functioned. Jaulian’s central stupa ringed by hashtag#votive stupas, its two-tiered cells, courtyards, ritual pools and long stone stairway offered a living classroom for exploring how elevation, approach routes and sightlines shaped hashtag#ritual practice and daily hashtag#monastic life.

Climbing the (approx) 300 steps and moving through the terraced complex gave our participants a visceral sense of cadence, space and progression that plans and photos cannot convey. The volunteers saw first-hand how stairs connected levels in a terraced site, served as processional routes, enabled access to upper chapels and offered vantage points across the landscape. This revealed how functional needs (access, drainage, ventilation) were interwoven with hashtag#symbolic meanings (ritual ascent, prominence, spiritual progression).

Although the team decided that Jaulian will not appear as a distinct playable node in our prototype, the experience was invaluable. Understanding its circulation, architecture and relationship to the surrounding terrain is directly informing how we design movement, quest structure and hashtag#spatial rhythm in other in-game sites such as Dharmarajika and Sirkap.

By walking those steps, the volunteers learned how ancient builders orchestrated movement and meaning, insights that they wish to apply in creating a more authentic, immersive and respectful digital representation of Taxila’s heritage.

Through this partnership, IRVI and UNESCO WHV are reimagining heritage conservation, protecting not just stones and structures, but also stories, rituals, and the collective memory of civilizations.

Mariam Rehman
Kiflemariam M. Tezera
Jawad Qudratullah
Zain Mustafa

IRVI-UNESCO WHV | (Sept 5-15) | Islamabad

As part of the UNESCO World Heritage Volunteers Camp, IRVI took participants to Sirkap, one of Taxila’s most remarkable hashtag#archaeological sites to ground their creative work for our heritage-based video game. At IRVI we approached heritage by asking how civilizations planned, built and sustained their cities. We questioned the hashtag#master plan that revealed the hashtag#macro story of hierarchy, movement and flow, while in comparison understood how artefacts such as jewellery, attire and tool reveal the hashtag#micro stories of daily life.

Sirkap, with its unique grid layout and its position among more than 25 excavated sites in the wider Taxila complex, became a point of departure for understanding ancient hashtag#urbanism. The team studied its placement related to water sources and natural defences and how the landscape offered both welcome and safety, creating one of the earliest footprints of a #“safe space” for traders, monks and residents.

This on-site learning gave deeper insights to the team for our game #"Whispers of Taxila". Drawing inspiration from history, our narrative stage is set at Sirkap where Alexander meets King Ambi of Taxila to forge an alliance against King Porus. By hashtag#digitally conserving Sirkap’s plan and stories, we are not only hashtag#documenting a heritage site but also creating a future flow model for other ancient cities, opening avenues for hashtag#shared knowledge, hashtag#sharing histories and hashtag#shared lifestyles beyond religious boundaries.

Our visit to Sirkap reaffirmed why this site is central to our project. As it offers the context of land, movement and interaction that shaped a hashtag#cosmopolitan city on the hashtag#Silk Road. With all these insights WHV were geared to translate them into immersive gameplay for a new generation of heritage stewards.

*IRVI is Seeking a Graphic Design Intern*

This is an unpaid, fully remote position offering valuable hands-on experience in the non-profit and heritage conservation sector.

Key Responsibilities:

- Designing and managing the layout of IRVI’s newsletters.

- Creating engaging infographics and visuals for our social media platforms.

Requirements:

- Proficiency in graphic design tools such as Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop, and Canva.

- Creativity, attention to detail, and ability to meet deadlines.

This role is an excellent opportunity to enhance your portfolio, gain real-world experience, and contribute to meaningful projects.

Please share your CV or portfolio at: zain.mustafa@indusrivervalley.org

For further queries, feel free to reach out to us via the given Email.

IRVI | UNESCO WHV | ( Sept 5-15, 2025), Islamabad.

Standing at the crossroads of hashtag ancient trade routes and hashtag living faiths, the Dharmarajika Monastery Complex in Taxila has become the centerpiece of IRVI’s collaboration with UNESCO WHV, an initiative blending hashtag conservation, hashtag gamification, hashtag cultural storytelling and hashtag digital innovation.

Once a thriving Buddhist monastic hub on the Silk Road, Dharmarajika’s monumental stupas, ritual spaces and monastic cells embody centuries of hashtag interfaith harmony, hashtag shared knowledge and hashtag inclusive traditions. Its strategic location amid fertile landscapes and river systems made it a beacon for the movement of people, hashtag ideas, and beliefs, a true cultural melting pot.

This field visit held two critical purposes for IRVI:

- Deep Cultural Insight: To ensure our national and international volunteers including Chiranthi Senanayake (a Buddhist WHV on our team) could directly experience the site’s historical significance, ritual practices, and hashtag cultural value.

- Authenticity in Gamification: Dharmarajika, together with Sirkap, serves as the core setting for our game’s narrative. On-site study allowed the participants to integrate precise hashtag architectural, symbolic and hashtag spiritual elements into our hashtag conservation-through-gamification approach.

Through this partnership, IRVI and UNESCO WHV are reimagining heritage conservation, protecting not just stones and structures, but also stories, rituals, and the collective memory of civilizations.

Mariam Rehman
Kiflemariam M. Tezera
Jawad Qudratullah
Zain Mustafa

IRVI x UNESCO WHV | Islamabad | Sept 5–15, 2025

As part of our “Future of Conservation through Gamification” project for UNESCO, the IRVI team visited the Taxila Museum.

This immersive field visit allowed the UNESCO World Heritage Volunteers the opportunity to dive deep into the life of Buddha, the heritage of Taxila and the 323 BCE

- Alexander's era, in order to gather authentic insights to shape their upcoming game prototype.

First, the team were walked through Taxila’s Topographical model and its 26 excavated sites to understand better the reason for its perfect strategic geopolitical reason to have developed on this particular land area.

Thereafter they were walked through the museum by Zaheer, its well-versed guide, on the museum’s artefacts, artefacts, clothing, jewellery, stones, musical instruments and other cultural treasures of the era available in the museum of Taxila, to translate and embed its tangible and intangible heritage into visually accurate elements for the game’s side quests.

By drawing detailed information from museum's displays and IRVI resource rich library, we are making sure the gameplay not only entertains but also educates, turning history into an engaging learning experience that meets UNESCO’s future vision for heritage site conservation.

IRVI x UNESCO WHV | Islamabad | Sept 5–15, 2025.

We’re excited to share IRVI’s new initiative on the Future of Conservation through Gamification.

To make this vision possible, a dedicated team of 10 experts has been selected five working on-site from IRVI’s office and five collaborating remotely blending diverse skills and expertise.

Conservation has long relied on traditional methods but how much do these resonate with today’s youth? At IRVI, we’re bridging this gap by exploring Gamification as an underused powerful medium for heritage conservation

This IRVI’s pioneering project supports UNESCO’s mission for World Heritage digital documentation, knowledge-sharing, and youth engagement. For the first time in Pakistan, a game concept is being proposed to UNESCO, making heritage accessible, relatable, and engaging for Gen Z and beyond.

The Game prototype will bring to life the grandeur of Taxila in 323 BCE, when Alexander arrived, and highlight the profound Buddhist influence of Ashoka. Through immersive gameplay, players will explore tangible and intangible heritage learning about culture, history, and conservation ethics in a way that feels natural to their mode of learning.

The prototype will serve as both an educational tool and a capacity-building resource demonstrating how technology and culture can merge to inspire the next generation of heritage custodians.

*IRVI is Seeking a Graphic Design Intern**IRVI is Seeking a Graphic Design Intern*

This is an unpaid, fully remote position offering valuable hands-on experience in the non-profit and heritage conservation sector.

Key Responsibilities:

- Designing and managing the layout of IRVI’s newsletters.

- Creating engaging infographics and visuals for our social media platforms.

Requirements:

- Proficiency in graphic design tools such as Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop, and Canva.

- Creativity, attention to detail, and ability to meet deadlines.

This role is an excellent opportunity to enhance your portfolio, gain real-world experience, and contribute to meaningful projects.

Please share your CV or portfolio at: zain.mustafa@indusrivervalley.org

For further queries, feel free to reach out to us via the given Email.

IRVI X UNESCO WHV camp 2025 debut

WHS selected: Taxila

A 10 day camp draws to a successful close. From 120 applicants, 30 were short listed for interviews & 10 were selected. Volunteers from Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, Quetta, Bahawalpur, Lahore, Karachi & Taxila itself worked together throughout. It was a unique, rare, intense, immersive and magical experience.

Below are a few fun excerpts caught on camera and stitched together:

Following the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s path into the highlands, we reach the Kalash valleys, where each season is etched upon the ridgelines. In three valleys, belief and ritual have carried forward through centuries of change. In our last chapter, we revisited Alexander of Macedon, whose story in South Asia often overshadows local histories. The Kalash, too, are sometimes cast into that same legend, imagined as remnants of a Greek past. But their culture tells another story: seasonal festivals, wooden effigies, and songs to unseen spirits point instead to deep Indo-Iranian roots, traditions that long predate Alexander’s arrival.

Their rituals move with the rhythm of the land. Spring awakens with Joshi, a festival of renewal, when valleys bloom and homes are adorned with flowers. Summer brings Uchau, when herds return from mountain pastures and the people give thanks for abundance. And in winter, the longest and most sacred festival, Chaumos, marks both ending and renewal, where fire, song, and offering sustain a sense of continuity across generations. Each celebration reflects not only a worldview but also an ecological wisdom, binding community to the cycles of earth, water, and sky.

The wooden carvings and ancestral effigies that stand in their graveyards tell of reverence for those who came before, while their songs and myths reveal cosmologies distinct yet deeply linked to the wider Indo-Iranian traditions of antiquity. Often mistaken as foreign influence, it shows the persistence of a worldview shaped by mountains and valleys, where the unseen blends with the everyday.

In the Kalash valleys, identity is carried forward not through isolation but through the adaptability of ritual, story, and song. Their culture reminds us that heritage is not a fixed monument but a living rhythm, moving with time while resisting erasure. By centering the Kalash on their own terms, IRVI places the Indus highlands back into South Asia’s cultural memory; where belonging is not an origin myth but a practice sustained season after season, echoing in the songs still sung to the mountains.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Continuing the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s journey through the crossroads of history, we arrive at 326 BCE, when Alexander of Macedon marched into South Asia; and reminds us that it is seen through two contrasting lenses. His presence, remembered as conquest in the West but as a fleeting intrusion in South Asian memory, reveals how the same event can fracture into opposing legacies.

In Greek texts, Alexander appears as an unstoppable conqueror, but South Asian memory and later histories offer a more restrained view: he fought fierce battles, negotiated with rulers, and then withdrew. Rather than being absorbed into legend, his name slipped to the margins of local narratives, soon overshadowed by dynasties like the Mauryas. His South Asian campaign marked the edge of his ambition; the harsh climate, strong resistance, and the exhaustion of his army forced him to turn back at the Hyphasis. This moment revealed the limits of empire and undercut the image of a world entirely bent to his will.

While Greek influence left a mark in art, coinage, and later Gandharan culture, it did not overwrite the region’s older traditions. Although Western narratives sometimes present Alexander as a harbinger of new culture, archaeological and textual evidence reveal a South Asia already sophisticated in governance, urban planning, and trade networks. The Indus cities had long been part of a cultural continuum stretching from Central Asia to the Arabian Sea, and local polities were no strangers to foreign exchange.

Alexander’s lasting impact lies less in South Asia itself and more in the global imagination. His name became a symbol of conquest in Western traditions, but in the subcontinent his actual footprint was brief. Cities he founded did not endure, and his memory was soon absorbed or forgotten within local histories.

By peeling away the layers of legend, IRVI maps Alexander’s South Asian chapter not as the story of a lone conqueror changing history, but as a moment of mutual encounter; one where the land and its people influenced the man as much as he left the traces on their story.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Today at Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), we aim to chart the meeting of three ancient waterways; the Indus, the Tigris-Euphrates, and the Nile. Each formed the backbone of a great civilization, serving as a current of exchange where events moved on tides of trade and innovation; weaving a network of early connections that shaped human history.

The Indus, Tigris-Euphrates, and Nile each sustained vast civilizations, yet their banks told both distinct and connected stories. The Indus linked Harappa to distant markets, sending lapis lazuli, carnelian, and fine cotton to Sumer, and receiving silver, tin, and advanced metallurgical techniques in return.

Mesopotamia’s twin rivers nurtured the world’s first cities, codified writing, and engineered vast irrigation systems that transformed arid plains into fertile fields, exporting grain, textiles, and finely crafted goods across the Gulf and beyond. The Nile’s steady floods fed Egypt’s centralized power, its agricultural surplus funding monumental pyramids and temples, while its trade routes brought cedar from Lebanon, gold from Nubia, incense from Punt, and glass beads that moved through Levantine ports; eventually intersecting with Mesopotamian and Indus networks.

Though languages and beliefs differed, all three civilizations built in baked brick or stone, mastered flood-based farming, and centralized bureaucracy. Seen together, they reveal a shared riverine ethos: civilizations rising on fertile floodplains, bound by the same bargain with water; abundance in exchange for constant vigilance. Along these currents moved not only goods but knowledge, beliefs, and artistic forms. Artifacts, techniques, and even mythic motifs traveled between distant shores, weaving one of the world’s first enduring and complex networks of exchange.

By tracing these parallels, IRVI repositions the Indus not as a peripheral culture, but as a central current in the world’s earliest web of civilizations.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Reflection of a personal journey but also very relevant to IRVIs work:

I am not part of the “Global South.”
That term was never made by us — only about us.

As a Pakistani, I reject frameworks that flatten the deep complexity of where I come from.

I am not defined by postcolonial borders or aid classifications.

I am of the Indus — a watershed that extends from Tibet to Kabul, then down through Punjab and Sindh, into a delta that touches the Arabian Sea and beyond to Africa.

My story does not begin in 1947.

It begins in a valley where ancient cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa traded with Mesopotamia, East Africa, and China — long before the Silk Road even had a name. I come from ancient networks of movement, trade, and thought.

From multiethnic bloodlines shaped by Scythians, Arabs, Persians, Dravidians, Turks, Africans, and Chinese traders — not fragments, but threads in a complex, living history.

The term “Global South” places people like me on the global periphery.

But we were never peripheral.
We are not “developing”; we are recovering — from extraction, from colonial violence, from historical erasure.

I don’t need a foreign label to explain who I am.

I am a decolonial thinker.

A citizen of a world that stretches across time zones and oceans, but is rooted in the soil of my ancestors.

My identity spans the Indus watershed, but also the trade winds that carried culture from Mombasa to Guangzhou, Muscat to Andalusia.

This is not nostalgia — it’s a claim to a future that doesn’t depend on colonial validation.

I stand in solidarity with others from the Majority World, but I stand on my own terms.

I am of the Indus.
I am many stories, not one label.
I am the center of my own narrative.
I do not need to be “developed.”
I come from civilization — and I carry it forward.

(Independence Day, 14 August 2025, night before thoughts on my identity)

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), continuing our series on the Harem and Hamam as channels of diplomacy and power, today we turn to another dimension: the hidden channels of authority embodied by eunuchs. Their presence across empires was not incidental but part of a trans-imperial tradition that connected regions, shaped diplomacy, and mediated sovereignty in subtle yet profound ways.

In South Asia, Mughal practice reflected Persianate influences tied to Ottoman and Central Asian courts, while in East Asia, distinct Chinese institutions produced unique systems of power, diplomacy, and maritime outreach. Eunuchs moved between private courtly spaces and the highest levels of politics, crossing both borders and hierarchies. By examining these roles, IRVI highlights how hidden intermediaries shaped global traditions of governance.

Within Mughal households, eunuchs regulated access to the zenana, safeguarded royal women, managed jewels and provisions, and often served as confidential envoys to courts or governors, blending domestic intimacy with political trust. In the Ottoman world, their authority went beyond guardianship: they handled petitions, oversaw vast charitable endowments (waqf), and curbed the ambitions of ministers through direct access to the sultan. Across Persianate and Central Asian realms, they worked as chamberlains supervising estates, court protocol, and diplomacy.

In Late Imperial China, eunuchs became a parallel bureaucracy, running workshops, espionage networks, and logistics. Figures like Zheng He rose to command massive naval expeditions, projecting imperial power far beyond palace walls.

The roots of such roles stretch back to antiquity. Mesopotamian sources record harem guardians and court officials with duties strikingly similar to later eunuchs. The Indus Valley’s ties to Mesopotamia suggest shared customs, including specialized intermediaries. Seen across this long arc, eunuchs’ political and domestic roles were not innovations of early modern empires but inheritances from the world’s first civilizations, a legacy IRVI seeks to illuminate.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

In this chapter of rediscovery, the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) revisits the hammam (bathhouse); a quiet yet vital chamber where diplomacy, devotion, and daily life converged across Indus-linked empires.

The Shahi Hammam at Delhi Gate stands as a testament to public rituals made private. Built in 1635 by Mughal physician Wazir Khan, it provided segregated bathing, massage, and beauty rituals; and discreet counsel under gilded domes. Built by court physician Ilm-ud-din Ansari, the Shahi Hammam functioned as both a waqf-funded public space and a royal retreat.

Bathhouses like Shiraz’s Vakil Hammam and Kashan’s Sultan Amir Ahmad Bathhouse were urban institutions tied to mosques and bazaars. They offered separation by gender and social status, hosted pre-wedding rituals, and acted as civic venues for negotiation and astronomy.

Seljuk and Byzantine antecedents shaped Turkish baths into social complexes. Ottoman hammams were often connected to mosque complexes; used for ceremonial bathing before prayers, social networking, and even marriage planning among women in separate wings. They supported education, finance, and charity as part of Islamic institutional design.

While not called hammams, royal bathhouses, though discreet, followed similar principles: ritual cleansing, political informality, and elite relaxation. These spaces offered private negotiation grounds and were often serviced exclusively by royal attendants or eunuchs, especially during Ming and Qing dynasties.

Architecturally elaborate, with intricate tilework, carved stone, and domed ceilings, these bathhouses reflected regional styles; from the geometric finesse of Mughal India and Ottoman Iznik tiles to Safavid brickwork and the subtle symmetry seen in Chinese inner-court design. The bath ritual was both cleansing and communicative.

IRVI’s lens reveals them as a stage where society, secrecy, and sovereignty intertwined. And illuminates this layered institution stripped of stereotypes and recognized for its emotional, ritual, and diplomatic resonance across South Asian and Near Eastern worlds.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

Mapping mysticism across time, the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) traces how the Indus region's spiritual practices were shaped by, helped shape, and continues to inform present-day practice. Archaeological evidence including the Pashupati seal, invites us to consider that proto-yogic or contemplative practices may have existed in the Indus Valley as early as 3300–1900 BCE.

Terracotta figurines in trance-like postures, fire altars, and the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro suggest early forms of ritual, cleanliness, and symbolic stillness; visual echoes of proto-yogic awareness.

Rituals may have combined sacred gestures (mudra), rhythmic movement, and sound. Objects like bird-shaped flutes and ceremonial drums indicate that sound held a central ritual function.

The presence of female figurines and fertility symbols suggests women played a significant spiritual role, with ritual cycles likely tied to rivers, seasons, and harvests; pointing to a kind of ecological mysticism that celebrated harmony with the natural world.

The Indus region’s position along early trade routes; such as the proto-Silk Road corridors linking Mesopotamia and Central Asia, allowed it to absorb and transmit spiritual and medicinal ideas over millennia. These influences likely merged with indigenous rhythms of river, season, and soil, enriching the region’s evolving mystical traditions.

While early expressions of inner practice predate written records, formal systems of yoga and dhyāna (meditation) emerge more clearly in the Vedic and Buddhist traditions. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and Gandharan meditation texts helped shape a shared contemplative vocabulary, possibly carrying forward echoes of the older Indus ethos.

Later, colonial framings often reinterpreted yoga and mysticism through Orientalist lenses, abstracting them from their ecological and ritual roots. IRVI’s work seeks to re-anchor these practices in their native soil; tracing their quiet evolution through lived, embodied experience.

Even today, Sufi dhikr, devotional music, and rural healing rituals in Sindh and Punjab carry the pulse of this older choreography of presence; one lived not through doctrine, but through breath, soil, and spirit.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

As part of the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s ongoing journey of exploring South Asian antiquity, we trace the symbols that have shaped civilizations. Today, we return to the mysterious bronze statuette popularly known as The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro. Unearthed in 1926 by British archaeologist Ernest Mackay in a residential area of Mohenjo-Daro, now located in Sindh, Pakistan, it is believed to date back over 4,500 years to the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500 BCE).

This artefact is considered one of the earliest known examples of lost-wax casting in human history, a method that reveals not only technical sophistication but also an evolved aesthetic sensibility of Harappan artisans.

Naked except for a necklace, bangles and a poised hand on her hip, the Dancing Girl is more than a figure; her presence defies the simplicity of her size, poised, self-assured, exuding a palpable sense of motion; some call her a dancer, others see a girl simply waiting. All these readings that evolved with time, reflect shifting political and gender discourses. Either way, she has come to symbolize agency, individuality, and reclaim attention from more traditionally valorised, male-centric relics of the past. She stands out as a rare representation of feminine presence from a largely anonymous past.

Her significance, however, isn’t just aesthetic or symbolic. After the Partition of British India, artefacts of the Indus Valley Civilization were divided between India and Pakistan. Now housed in the National Museum in New Delhi, while a replica can be found in the Lahore Museum, a reminder of the fractured legacy of colonial-era archaeological divisions.

But beyond borders, she remains relevant. In an age where the past is often either glorified or forgotten, the Dancing Girl reminds us that confidence, craftsmanship, and presence are not modern traits but are timeless and enduring human qualities.

For IRVI, revisiting her is part of our mission to re-contextualize the overlooked and reimagine what history chooses to remember.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair.

Continuing Indus River Valley Institute IRVI’s deep dive into the traditions rooted in the Indus basin, we step into the rhythms that once echoed along the Sindh plains, tracing the ancient dance traditions that shaped identity and ritual.

While there are no written records, archaeological finds like terracotta figurines in dynamic poses and seals depicting dancers testify to a vibrant performance culture woven into daily life and religious practice in the Indus Valley (c. 3300–1900 BCE). Dance was a ritualistic and communal act, deeply embedded in the rhythms of seasonal life. It was performed during harvest festivals, moonlit gatherings, and fertility rites that echoed through agrarian settlements. Movements were not merely performative, but symbolic: mimicking sowing, rain, birth cycles, or cosmic alignment. Instruments shaped like birds and symbolic depictions on seals suggest a multisensory world, where sound and movement, converged to connect individuals with the cosmos and community.

Given its position along trade routes, including precursors to Silk Road pathways, the Indus region likely absorbed external influences. The region’s openness to exchange with traders and travellers from Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and later along Silk Road routes likely enriched local performative traditions.

Although classical forms like Bharatanatyam or Kathak emerged centuries later, shaped by temple aesthetics, courtly patronage, and regional codification. They evolved from a broader subcontinental reservoir of embodied storytelling. In Sindh, folk traditions such as Dhamaal, often performed at Sufi shrines, and Bhagat, a theatrical dance-drama rooted in devotion and satire, still carry the pulse of collective memory and ritualized gesture. These dances are repositories ancient expressive forms to today’s vernacular traditions.

In a region so shaped by erasures, colonial, ideological, and cultural, acknowledging dance becomes a way of reclaiming memory. Through this feature, IRVI hopes to reframe dance as a vital language. One that still speaks, still resists, and still belongs.

Researched for IRVI by Amna Zubair

As part of the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI)’s work to rediscover and honor the sacred voices of the Indus Basin, Hazrat Sachal Sarmast (1739–1829) stands as one of the most radical and radiant figures. Born in Daraza Sharif, near Ranipur in Khairpur district, Sachal lived during a time of social change and imperial uncertainty, just as Sindh was shifting from Kalhora to Talpur rule. He belonged to a family of scholars and Sufis, but Sachal’s path led beyond orthodoxy. Drawing from the Qadiri Sufi order, his teachings pushed spiritual freedom to its limits; embracing wahdat al-wujood (unity of being), speaking of divine love in multiple languages (Sindhi, Seraiki, Persian, Arabic, Punjabi, and Balochi), and calling out both clerical rigidity and political injustice.

He was called "Sachal", the truthful one, for good reason. Sachal chose poetry as his medium and was often ecstatic, unfiltered, and defiant. For IRVI, his poetry is not just devotional, its political theology encoded in metaphor. Through tales of Layla, Mansur, and Krishna, Sachal offered a critique of sectarianism, ego, and empire, and championed the freedom of the soul above all else.

Sachal’s shrine was built in the mid-19th century by the Talpurs, the shrine complex features intricate tilework, arched corridors, and a central dome with calligraphy drawn from his poetry. Unlike the more urban shrines of Sehwan or Uch, Daraza is a quiet village but feels intimate, especially during Sachal’s Urs, held each year in Shaban. His words still resonate with Sindh’s poets, musicians, and resistance thinkers, bridging folk mysticism, philosophical inquiry, and anti-authoritarian thought. The shrine is also home to a modest library and museum dedicated to Sachal’s multilingual work, a rare preservation effort that reflects the enduring intellectual depth of Sindh’s Sufi culture.

For IRVI, Sachal Sarmast represents a rare fusion of intellectual mysticism and grassroots devotion, a saint whose words still challenge the narrow and the rigid.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

As part of the Indus River Valley Institute’s (IRVI) commitment to recovering and celebrating the layered spiritual identities of the Indus Basin, we honor Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689–1752); a poet, mystic, and visionary whose verses remain the heartbeat of Sindhi culture. Born in Hala Haveli, not far from the banks of the Indus River, Shah Latif lived during a time of decline of the Mughal empire, the rise of local dynasties, and increasing tensions between spiritual and political authority. Against this backdrop, he crafted a uniquely Indus-centered Sufi vision rooted in local landscapes, folk stories, and vernacular language. Fluent in Arabic, Persian, and Sindhi, Latif chose to write in Sindhi verse, embedding sacred wisdom into the voices of ordinary people; fisherwomen, wanderers, weavers, and lovers.

Bhittai spent much of his later life at Bhit Shah, a small hill near the Luni River in central Sindh, where he composed poetry, sang with fakirs, and received seekers from all walks of life. His mausoleum, built in 1754 by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro, remains one of the most significant Sufi shrines in South Asia.

The inner sanctum houses Latif’s white marble grave under a richly embroidered canopy, while the outer courtyard hosts gatherings of shah jo faqir, hereditary custodians who recite his verses in sur (musical mode) every evening. During the Urs (death anniversary) held in Safar, Bhit Shah transforms into a spiritual village, filled with pilgrims, musicians, and dervishes, all drawn by the enduring power of Latif’s song. The IRVI’s documentation of these gatherings highlights how the shrine operates not only as a tomb but as a living performance space, where language, devotion, and land are in constant dialogue.

His poetry honors Sindh’s mystic heroines Sassi, Marui, Momal, and Sohni as embodiments of divine longing, perseverance, and resistance. His Risalo has been translated into over a dozen languages, yet in the Sindhi oral tradition, it remains sung more than read; passed from ustad to shagird, from shrine to street. For the Indus River Valley Institute, his legacy is not only a literary treasure but a blueprint for pluralism and spiritual ecology, rooted in land, tuned to music, and open to all.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

As part of the Indus River Valley Institute’s (IRVI) ongoing work to document the sacred and cultural landscapes of South Asia, we turn to Shah Rukn-e-Alam, one of the most iconic Sufi saints of the Indus Valley, whose tomb still watches over the ancient city of Multan. Born in 1251 CE into the Suhrawardi Sufi order, Shah Rukn-e-Alam was the grandson and spiritual successor of Baha-ud-din Zakariya, another towering figure in South Asian Sufism. A deeply respected scholar, ascetic, and spiritual teacher, Shah Rukn-e-Alam became known as the ‘Pillar of the World’, a title not only reflecting his personal stature, but his central role in anchoring Sufi thought and practice in the region. Through preaching, teaching, and public service, he consolidated the Suhrawardi order’s influence across southern Punjab, guiding kings, commoners, and mystics alike. According to oral traditions preserved by IRVI researchers, he mediated tribal disputes, provided spiritual education, and rejected courtly politics in favor of divine alignment, embodying the Sufi ideal of detached presence: in the world, but not of it.

His tomb, located atop Qasim Bagh Fort in Multan, is not only a sacred site but also a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture. Built between 1320–1324 CE by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq during his governorship of Multan (before becoming Delhi Sultan), the shrine is an imposing octagonal brick structure with glazed turquoise tiles, a massive wooden dome, and intricately carved woodwork. The structure rises 100 feet high and remains visible across Multan’s skyline, making it both a spiritual and visual landmark. Pilgrims from across Pakistan and beyond visit the shrine, especially during Urs (death anniversary celebrations) held in Jumada al-Awwal.

Shah Rukn-e-Alam’s legacy reaches far beyond Multan, touching the spiritual, cultural, and even political history of the Indus Valley. IRVI fieldwork and archival research reveal how he became a symbol not only of piety, but of intercommunal harmony, respected by Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs alike across centuries.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

The Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), committed to surfacing the lesser-told spiritual histories of South Asia. With this pursuit IRVI turns its attention to Mai Safooran; a revered but under-documented female Sufi saint of Thatta, Sindh. Likely active in the late 17th or early 18th century, Mai Safooran lived in the spiritual shadow of a city that had once served as a capital under the Samma and Mughal dynasties, and a thriving center of Islamic learning and Sufi practice. She is remembered not as a scholar or political figure, but as a local healer, mystic, and spiritual guide whose quiet presence left a lasting imprint on the region’s devotional landscape. In an era when formal religious authority was overwhelmingly male, Mai Safooran's influence was built on direct service, lived compassion, and unshakeable devotion to the Divine qualities that earned her sainthood in the hearts of generations. Her life represents a grassroots form of Sufism, practiced not in courts or khanqahs, but in homes, fields, and among women whose voices were rarely recorded but deeply felt.

Her shrine, located in the village of Pir Patho, roughly 20 kilometers from Thatta town. Shrine’s architecture is simple with white-plastered structure topped with a modest dome, and surrounded by date palms and neem trees. Her sanctuary was rebuilt in its current form during the British colonial period, likely in the early 20th century. Most pilgrims are women, many of whom arrive barefoot, carrying bottles of rosewater and bundles of thread to tie to the shrine's iron grill, symbolizing prayers for fertility, marital peace, or protection from illness. Unlike the shrines of male saints, Mai Safooran’s space remains informal, intimate, and maintained largely by local women. It is one of the few active shrines in Sindh where female religious presence is not peripheral but central.

Her story stands as a counter-narrative to the erasure of women in Sufi history, reminding us that sainthood was not always granted by institutional power, but recognized through lived piety, sacrifice, and healing. For IRVI, Mai Safooran is emblematic of the kind of spiritual and cultural histories we seek to protect.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute, we document artists who defined the cultural identity of the region. Roshan Ara Begum was one of the few women to carry the weight of classical music into a new nation, and she did it without compromise, and was rightfully known as ‘Mallika e Mausiqi, the Queen of Classical Music in both Pakistan and India.

Born in Calcutta in 1917, and was trained under Ustad Abdul Karim Khan of the Kirana Gharana, mastering khayal with precision and power. After Partition, she moved to Lala Musa, Punjab, not out of necessity, but by choice, and made Pakistan her home. In the 1950s and 60s, her performances on Radio Pakistan and at major national events established her as the foremost classical vocalist in the country.

Roshan Ara Begum didn’t soften her art to fit changing tastes. While film music and ghazal gained popularity, she stayed rooted in raga, insisting that classical music deserved public space. In 1960, she was awarded the Pride of Performance, and later, the Sitara-e-Imtiaz, rare honors for a woman in a male-dominated field.

She lived her final decades in Lala Musa, quietly shaping a generation of listeners and musicians. Her legacy reminds us that the story of Pakistan’s music is not only one of innovation, but of preservation, and that women were at the center of both.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute, we highlight women who shaped the cultural life of the Indus region. Out of all the great women of this region, Malika Pukhraj was one of the most influential. Born in 1912 in Akhnoor near Jammu, she became a court singer for Maharaja Hari Singh at the age of nine and trained in classical and folk forms rooted in the northern subcontinent.

After the Partition of the subcontinent in 1947, she migrated to Lahore and became one of the first major female voices on Radio Pakistan. She was known for her powerful renditions of ghazal and Pahari folk songs, performing works by Hafeez Jalandhari, Iqbal and others. Her 1949 performance of ‘Abhi to main jawan hoon’, became a cultural milestone and one of Pakistan’s most enduring recordings.

At a time when women were discouraged from public performance, she continued to appear on stage and broadcast regularly. She refused to be confined to private spaces, performing nationally and internationally, including at All India Radio and later at the BBC. Her 1980 autobiography, Song Sung True, offered rare insight into the life of a female artist navigating colonial, princely, and postcolonial worlds.

Malika Pukhraj helped shape the musical identity of Pakistan in its earliest years. Her work preserved pre-Partition folk and classical traditions while helping to define a new national sound. Her career stands as a record of resilience and a reminder that the history of music in this region cannot be told without its women.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute, we’re committed to uncovering the layered histories of the Indus region, especially the forgotten legacies of women in the form of preserved traditions, cultures, arts and even music. Before the era of film songs and pop icons in Pakistan, powerful female voices shaped the musical culture of this land. One such figure is Gauhar Jaan, whose influence flowed through the cultural centers of pre-partition Lahore, Delhi, and Calcutta. She didn’t just sing, she transformed how music was shared and remembered.

Gauhar Jaan was the first South Asian artist to be recorded on a gramophone in 1902, a groundbreaking moment in the history of sound. Trained in classical forms like thumri, dadra, khayal, and ghazal, she recorded over 600 songs in more than 20 languages. Her performances brought the refined music of royal courts to the public ear. At the end of every recording, she would proudly declare her name, ‘My name is Gauhar Jaan’, staking her claim in a male-dominated world with confidence and flair.

But her legacy is more than musical. Born Angelina Yeoward, she and her mother converted to Islam and entered the complex world of performance and court patronage. Gauhar carved out a space for herself as a singer, composer, and cultural icon at a time when women’s presence in public life was heavily restricted. She demanded recognition, shaped her own career, and became a symbol of female agency in colonial South Asia.

Today, as women musicians in Pakistan continue to navigate questions of space, visibility, and expression, Gauhar Jaan’s story reminds us that the roots of this struggle and this brilliance run deep. The soundscape of the Indus has always had women at its center, now it’s time we listen more closely.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

Call for Applicants: UNESCO World Heritage Volunteers Camp: 5-15 September 2025 (application submission deadline July 15, 2025)

Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), Islamabad, is proud to host the UNESCO World Heritage Volunteers Camp this September, focusing on one of the most historically rich sites of South Asia: the Taxila UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Are you passionate about ancient civilizations — from the Indus River region through the Silk Road, connecting Genghis Khan to Alexander the Great?

We invite fresh graduates and Master’s students, domestic and international, with strengths in:

• Online Research
• Scholarly or Historical Fiction Writing
• AI Visuals & Video Creation
• Gaming Scripting & Design
• Photography
• Hand Sketching & Illustration
• AutoCAD & Lumion
• Filmmaking & Editing

Selected applicants will work on creative documentation and storytelling projects based on Taxila’s rich history and IRVI’s broader mission.

To apply:

Email your CV, a short statement of interest, and a sample of your work to:

zain.mustafa@indusrivervalley.org

https://lnkd.in/dcCBrwuD

Selection is based on your experience, interest in Taxila and IRVI, and your sample’s quality.

Important Details:

• Participants must arrange their own travel to IRVI in Islamabad (domestic/international).
• During the camp, room, board, and local transportation will be provided by IRVI.
• Volunteers must bring their own tools, equipment, and computers necessary for their work.

Be part of reimagining heritage through storytelling, design, and innovation.

At the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), we do not analyze academic contributions like Tahzib-un-Niswan as a historical magazine, but as a living archive of indigenous feminist thought in Muslim South Asia. Launched in 1901 in Lahore and published in Urdu, Tahzib was written by and for Muslim women at a time when their voices were largely excluded from print. It covered education, health, faith, law, and literature, centering women’s perspectives within their own cultural and religious frameworks.

At its heart was Muhammadi Begum, widely regarded as one of South Asia’s first female editors. In essays like Auraton ke Huqooq (The Rights of Women) and Shareek-e-Hayat ka Intekhab (Choosing a Life Partner), she used Quranic and Hadith sources to argue for women's rights in marriage, property, and education, framing reform as deeply Islamic, not foreign.

She was joined by women like Atiya Begum Fyzee, whose travelogue Zamana‑i‑Tahsil (A Time of Education) was serialized in Tahzib-un-Niswan in 1907, reflecting on her experience studying in London. More woman like Zehra Begum Fyzee, who contributed essays on women’s health in Tandarusti Hazar Naimat. Moreover, Hijab Imtiaz Ali, whose first short story, Meri Natamam Muhabbat (My Unfinished Love), was published at age 12 in Tahzib-un-Niswan and marked the start of her celebrated fiction career.

Tahzib-un-Niswan didn’t break silence, it nurtured a space that had long existed, grounded in Urdu, Islam, and lived experience. It didn’t imitate Western feminism, it forged a reformist path rooted in its own soil. Today, IRVI carries that legacy forward. These women weren’t exceptions, they were part of a continuous, intellectual tradition. This is not nostalgia. It is continuity and it lives on.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute, we do not limit our research to architectural heritage but also explore the rich traditions of women scholars that helped to shape the region's literary and educational future. Thus, IRVI’s research leads it to Shah Jahan Begum, who was not only a ruler but a remarkable scholar whose intellectual legacy deeply connects with IRVI's values. Shah Jahan Begum was a distinguished author who wrote in both Urdu and Persian. Her works consisted of poetry, autobiography, and treatises on ethics and governance. One of her most influential books was Tahzib-un-Niswan wa Tarbiyat-ul-Insan, which addressed women's education and moral development. She also composed classical Urdu poetry, compiled in Deewan-e-Shahjahani, showcasing her literary refinement.

Deeply committed to advancing women’s rights and education, Shah Jahan Begum established multiple girls' schools, including the Victoria School in Bhopal, and laid the groundwork for the later Sultania School. As early as 1860, she founded a day-school for girls and oversaw the creation of 76 primary schools. She strongly believed in educating Muslim girls, a radical stance at the time, and wrote texts specifically to elevate women’s moral and intellectual development. Her writings emphasized that educated women were central to nurturing ethical families and just societies.

As a patron of Islamic scholarship, Shah Jahan Begum financed the publication of important religious and educational texts, and supported scholars and institutions across the Muslim world. She contributed funds to major centers of learning, including Al-Azhar University in Cairo and the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. Under her rule, Bhopal expanded its state library and established a dedicated History Department and Archive in 1906. These initiatives ensured the preservation and dissemination of knowledge and reflected her vision of a literate, intellectually engaged Islamic society.

Today, her scholarly spirit inspires women across the region to embrace education and critical thinking as tools of empowerment. For IRVI, her life stands as a testament to the enduring power of Muslim women’s scholarship in shaping history and charting new futures.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute, we investigate how transient moments in history have shaped enduring patterns in the region’s identity and consciousness. The Battle of the Indus in 1221 AD, fought between Genghis Khan’s Mongol army and Jalal ad-Din of the Khwarezmian Empire, was one such moment: short-lived, but seismic in its impact.

As Jalal ad-Din fled the Mongol onslaught through Central Asia, he made his final stand near the Indus. Despite a brave defense, his forces were overwhelmed by Genghis Khan’s strategic brilliance and brutal momentum. The photo above depicts this scene - it's a late 16th-century depiction of Jalal al-Din fleeing the battle by crossing the Indus as Genghis Khan looks on.

Though the Mongols did not remain, their arrival signaled the vulnerability of South Asia’s northwestern frontier. For the Indus region, this sparked defensive innovation and political realignments. Forts were reinforced, tribal allegiances restructured, and fear of future invasions became part of collective memory. For IRVI, these reactions are adaptive responses and evidence of how societies absorb trauma into long-term strategies of resilience.

Even today, tales of Genghis Khan surface in local legends and folklore. The battle is remembered not just for its violence, but for how it catalyzed change, revealing how such flashpoints of conflict still shape the region’s cultural self-awareness and historical consciousness.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), we examine war as a lens through which civilizations express identity, contest power, and shape influence far beyond the battlefield. The Seleucid–Mauryan War, fought between Seleucus I and Chandragupta Maurya between 303-305 BCE, played out on the western frontiers of the Indus and forever reshaped the region’s political map.

Following Alexander’s death, the Seleucids sought to reclaim eastern territories, but Chandragupta’s rising Mauryan Empire proved a formidable match. Instead of prolonged conflict, both sides reached a rare diplomatic accord: territorial concessions, intermarriage, and a legendary gift of 500 war elephants from India to the Hellenistic world.

This peace set the stage for a golden era in the Indus. Under Mauryan influence, the region evolved from a contested frontier into a flourishing political and spiritual hub, marked by innovations in statecraft, infrastructure, and Buddhist patronage. Modern echoes of this transformation still shape the region’s identity from Mauryan-inspired urban layouts and monastic sites in Punjab and Sindh, to Buddhist iconography and stone inscriptions linked to Ashoka’s edicts.

This peace set the stage for a golden era in the Indus. Under Mauryan influence, the region evolved from a contested frontier into a flourishing political and spiritual hub, marked by innovations in statecraft, infrastructure, and Buddhist patronage. Modern echoes of this transformation still shape the region’s identity from Mauryan-inspired urban layouts and monastic sites in Punjab and Sindh, to Buddhist iconography and stone inscriptions linked to Ashoka’s edicts.

These remnants reflect not only the enduring influence of the Mauryan era, but also spiritual and political foundations that continue to define the cultural landscape. IRVI’s work reveals how ancient diplomacy offered lasting models of coexistence and frameworks of cultural negotiation that remain deeply relevant today.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute we don’t just study history, we decode how ancient conflicts carved the cultural blueprint of an entire region. For that, we’re looking into Alexander the Great’s transformative campaign into the Indus. Among his most legendary encounters was the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE, fought against the resilient King Porus along the river now known as the Jhelum.

This battle wasn’t just a military conquest, it was also a cultural collision. Although Alexander emerged victorious, he was so impressed by Porus’ valor that he reinstated him as ruler, a rare gesture in his campaigns. His army, fatigued by the scale of the Indian subcontinent, refused to advance further, marking the easternmost edge of Alexander’s empire.

For the Indus region, this was a defining moment of contact. Greek artistic and political influences began to seep into local traditions, especially in Gandhara. IRVI’s research traces how Hellenistic thought blended with South Asian spirituality, contributing to the emergence of Greco-Buddhist art and hybrid systems of governance.

Today, Alexander’s path through the Indus lives on in architecture, oral legends, and regional identity. At IRVI, we examine how such moments continue to inform the way history is remembered not as foreign invasions, but as encounters that reshaped the region’s trajectory in lasting ways.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At Indus River Valley Institute our research leads us into the Makran desert, where the earth cracks underfoot and faith defies the harshness. Here, at Hinglaj Mata, the cave shrine isn’t just a relic but a pilgrimage that refuses to fade, even as the cliffs crumble around it. More than a temple, it’s a living testament to the subcontinent’s spiritual heartbeat, embraced by Balochistan’s rugged wilderness.

Hinglaj Mata is one of Hinduism’s 51 Shakti Peethas, where the skull of Sati, Shiva’s consort, is said to have fallen after she self immolated. For centuries, it has been a pilgrimage site, attracting devotees from across South Asia. While the cave itself is ancient, the current structures around it likely date to the 8th–12th century CE, built by devotees and local rulers.

Unlike man-made temples, Hinglaj Mata’s sanctum is a natural cave within Balochistan’s rugged mountains. The temple complex was later expanded with Vedic-inspired structures around the sacred grotto.

The shrine merges nature by design, no elaborate shikharas, just coarse mountain struction full of spirituality. The cave’s entrance is marked by a symbolic trishul (trident), and pilgrims undergo rituals in the surrounding desert.

Did You Know?

• The annual Hinglaj Yatra is Pakistan’s largest Hindu pilgrimage
• Muslim locals protect the site, calling it Nani Mandir.
• The journey involves a 40km trek through the Makran desert.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

Through our work at the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVi), we explore how sacred spaces remain vital threads in the cultural fabric of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Shiv Temple of Umerkot is one such space, a sanctuary not frozen in time, but alive with daily rituals and local devotion. Its enduring presence speaks to a legacy that is both historical and ongoing, where tradition is not only remembered but actively lived. Here, faith and heritage are not relics of the past, but part of the region’s evolving identity.

According to legend, the temple was built after a cow was seen offering milk to a Shiva lingam buried in the spot. The current structure likely dates to the 18th or 19th century, though its origins may trace back earlier to the reign of Hindu rulers in Umerkot.

The Umerkot Shiv Temple was built using traditional Sindhi techniques, with thick red bricks made from local clay and strong lime mortar mixed with jaggery and gum for durability. This sturdy construction has helped the temple survive harsh weather for centuries while keeping its structure intact.

The temple follows classic Hindu design with two main features: the shikhara (a towering spire symbolizing Mount Kailash, Shiva’s heavenly home) and the mandapa (a pillared hall where devotees gather for prayers). These elements, along with detailed carvings of gods and sacred patterns, showcase the skill of Sindhi artisans.

Did You Know?

• One of the few Pakistani temples where daily puja still occurs.
• Umerkot was once ruled by a Hindu king, Raja Rana Chandra Singh.
• The temple is a symbol of Hindu-Muslim harmony, with locals helping preserve it.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omair Najmi

At the Indus River Valley Institute, we are committed to uncovering and preserving the layered narratives of one of the world’s oldest civilizations. Our exploration takes us on the sacred ancient temples that rise from the landscape, as enduring testaments to the spiritual and artistic vitality of the Indus Valley Civilization. Sites like the Katas Raj are not merely archaeological remnants but are living echoes of a pluralistic past that embodies centuries of faith, craftsmanship, and cultural community. These hallowed spaces serve as portals into a shared legacy that continues to shape identity and inspire reverence across generations.

Dating back to 615–950 CE, Katas Raj was built by the Hindu Shahis. Its sacred pond is believed to be filled with Lord Shiva’s tears after the death of his wife, Sati. The temple complex is even mentioned in the Mahabharata and was visited by Guru Nanak.

Built in the Kashmiri architectural tradition, the complex features seven temples arranged around the pond, forming a cosmic mandala. Each structure follows ancient Shilpa Shastra principles, blending spirituality with precise mathematical design.

The temples showcase classic mandapas (pillared halls) and towering shikharas (spires), symbolizing sacred mountains. The reflection of the spires in the pond creates a mesmerizing illusion, merging heaven and earth.

Did You Know?

• The pond’s water was once believed to have healing powers.
• Al-Biruni visited Katas Raj to study its sacred waters.
• The temples were restored in 2017, reviving their ancient glory.

Researched for IRVI by Hiba Omar

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), while reflecting on the layers of identity, history etched with the Mahabat Khan Mosque and the Indus valley civilization, we were drawn into a narrative shaped by Mughal Empire’s glory as it stood resilient through the turbulence of empires and ideologies, boring witness to the region's enduring Islamic identity. In times of upheaval, when power shifted hands and new rulers redrew boundaries, the mosque remained a steadfast and spiritual anchor of infusing faith into the fabric of society and continuing to embody the religious memory and resilience of its people.

Mahabat Khan Mosque is located in the heart of Andar Shehr Bazaar, Peshawar.The immaculate white Mahabat Khan Mosque, is named after the Mughal governor of Peshawar, Nawab Mahabat Khan mirza Lerharsib. Mahabat Khan served during the era of Emperor Shah Jahan and his son, Emperor Aurangzeb. The precise completion date of this masjid is unknown. However, 1670 is regarded more accurate.

The mosque contains a large prayer hall with five arched entryways and three domes. Mosque’s ceiling is embellished with elegant red frescoes in geometrics and floral motifs while its exterior was decorated with Mughal frescoes that amplify its beauty. The top of the mosque is covered by three fluted domes, six miniature decorative minarets which were built on top of the main entrance, lined by two tall minarets. A blue-tiled ablution pond sits in the middle of the side yard, flanked on either side by a row of compartments.

According to some historians, the mosque went through many trials during the Sikh rule (1834-1849) during the appointment of General Avitabile, an Italian mercenary, as the governor of Peshawa. The mosque's minarets were used as makeshift gallows for executing criminals, sometimes up to five people per day. Moreover, during the Silk rule its ornamental plates were ruthlessly removed and whisked away. It was later renovated when British took over in 1949 and handed over to the people of Peshawar for worship.

The mosque was also a significant location for Afghan tribal leaders following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Refugee elders congregated in the mosque to foster unity among Afghan people and coordinate efforts against the Soviets.

Researched for IRVI by Mariam Rehman

At the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), our journey of ongoing exploration into the roots of identity in the region has led us down a historical path to the Mughal era, a period of Islamic architecture and Islamic identity. As the Mughal Empire expanded across Persia, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, it drew artists, scholars, and nobles from diverse regions into its royal court. This convergence of cultural and religious traditions found a striking visual expression in architectural masterpieces like the Wazir Khan Mosque, which reflects the fusion of Islamic aesthetics and regional identity.

Wazir Khan Mosque, often regarded as the ornamental gem of Lahore, was constructed during the 17th century under the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan. The construction of the Wazir Khan Mosque began in 1634 and was completed in 1641 under the supervision of Hakeem Ilam-ud-din Ansari, the Mughal Court’s head physician, also known as Wazir Khan. He owned a large quantity of land near the Delhi Gate and built the mosque to house the burial of Miran Badshah on the prior location of the shrine of the illustrious Sufi saint.

The mosque's layout can be divided into three sections: the entrance, courtyard, and main prayer hall. Visitors enter through its Timurid-style iwan, a rectangular structure serving as a gate, inscribed with Persian quatrains by calligrapher Muhammad Ali, a disciple of Sufi saint Hazrat Mian Mir. This leads to a covered octagonal chamber in the mosque’s “Calligrapher’s Bazaar,” located in the center of the mosque.

Passing through the octagonal chamber and Calligrapher’s Bazaar, visitors enter the mosque’s courtyard, measuring 160 by 130 feet, with high arched galleries enclosing the brick-paved area. This was a common feature of imperial Persian mosques. The main prayer hall, richly decorated with intricate frescoes and tile work, showcases the mosque's architectural brilliance.

The mosque also ran the nearby Shahi Hammam and rented space to different types of merchants on its northern and eastern façades. Wazir Khan mosque only embodies the grandeur of Mughal Lahore but also serves as a living legacy of the Indus region’s cultural richness and tolerance.

Researched for IRVI by Mariam Rehman

At the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), our mission to rediscover the spiritual and cultural identity of the people of the Indus region leads us to explore religious architecture as a living reflection of belief and belonging. In this pursuit, Masjid-e-Tooba stands as a powerful symbol of Islamic identity within an urban, modern context with its monumental dome and minimalist design.

Masjid-e-Tooba, which means “the mosque of goodness and benevolence” is an iconic symbol of Indo-Islamic architecture and is regarded as the 18th biggest mosque in the world. It is a part of Karachi’s cultural heritage and plays a vital role in the city’s identity with its unique design and beautiful white marble walls. It is located in the posh area of the city of lights, Karachi namely Phase 2 of Defence Housing Authority.

The construction history of Masjid - e-Tooba dates back to the 1960s, when the Karachi Municipal Corporation (KMC) acquired a plot of land, near the Pakistan Naval Academy. The site was chosen because it was centrally located and easily accessible from all neighborhoods. The KMC then held a design competition for the mosque, which was won by Pakistani architect Dr. Babar Hamid Chauhan. Dr. Hamid’s single dome design that was larger than any dome in Pakistan stood out and allowed him to lead the design work of the mosque. The construction of the mosque began in 1966 involving the local community of Karachi, which contributed both financially and physically to its construction and was completed in 1969.

The mosque is made of traditional Balti style of architecture using the traditional “Cribbage and Cator” technique. Inside is a prayer hall with a verandah to the east that serves as a lobby. The outer roof is topped with a Tibetan tower. The exposed timber is profusely decorated with carvings and motifs borrowed from Tibetan, Kashmiri and Mughal architecture.

Tooba Mosque’s unique dome is 212 feet wide and stands 51.48 feet tall and requires more than 70,000 man-hours of labor to construct. The main hall located under the dome can accommodate an estimated 5,000 worshippers. The dome is made of pure white marble and is covered with alluring mirrors. The absence of a central pillar inside the mosque allows for an unobstructed view of the dome from any angle, creating a sense of openness and unity among worshippers and keeping acoustics in mind, which means that if a person speaks at one end of the mosque, he can be heard at the other end. The mosque also features a large courtyard for gatherings, which is surrounded by a colonnade of white marble pillars.

Researched for IRVI by Mariam Rehman

As part of Indus River Valley Institute’s (IRVI) quest to learn more about the identity infused in the historical pasts and origins. We pledge to take a deeper dive into the historical traces and sites that tell a lot about the various identities people beheld and how and why these traces are important embodiments of the connection between Religion and identity. Amburik Mosque stands as a vital historical relic, embodying the spread of Islam and the unique Islamic identity of the early Balti inhabitants and travelers. To understand these connections Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) as part of its mosque series, is unpacking another mosque which states a lot about Islamic identity, early traces of Islam in Baltistan and the Islamic Architecture.

Amburiq Mosque located in the tranquil village of Amburiq, is a historical masterpiece. As per the historical myths and stories, the mosque was constructed during the Persianate Turkic empire based in the ancient Iranian Kingdom of Khwarezm (modern-day Turkmenistan/Uzbekistan).

The 14th-century Amburik Mosque represents the first and the oldest Islamic religious monument to strengthen Islam in the Shigar. It was built by Iranian craftsmen who were traveling with the Kashmiri preacher, Syed Ali Hamdani. Syed Ali Hamdani, the legendary saint helped spread Islam in the region. On his way from Yarkand in the 14th century (between 1372 -1383), he passed through the famous Braldu La pass into Shigar with his missionaries.

The mosque is made of traditional Balti style of architecture using the traditional “Cribbage and Cator” technique. Inside is a prayer hall with a verandah to the east that serves as a lobby. The outer roof is topped with a Tibetan tower. The exposed timber is profusely decorated with carvings and motifs borrowed from Tibetan, Kashmiri and Mughal architecture.

After years of neglect that took a visible toll on the structure, especially after the earthquake it witnessed 90 years ago causing it to tilt westwards, the mosque was finally restored in 1998. Many devotees visit the mosque each year.

Researched for IRVI by Mariam Rehman
Ph: Muhammad Hasan Talal

Exploring the architectural soul of sacred spaces reveals much about the beliefs of the people who built them. Understanding these set of beliefs, unraveling the identity behind these beliefs, is at the heart of what we do here at Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI). With the launch of our mosque series, we turn our focus on the significance of Islamic architecture. Historic mosques like the Chaqchan Masjid are expressions of spiritual resilience and cultural identity.

The Chaqchan Mosque is one of the oldest mosques in the region dating from 1370 when people started converting from Buddhism to Islam. Chaqchan mosque meaning “The Miraculous Mosque” shares similar architecture as those built in the Kashmir Valley and Gilgit Baltistan. Whoever visits the Khaplu, tends to visit the mosque, as it is located at 15-minute walk from the 700-year-old Khaplu Palace.

The precise history of the construction of the mosque is not known. But according to local tradition, it is believed that the inhabitants of Khaplu practiced Buddhism prior to the spread of Islam in the region. It was after Mir Syed Hamdani, who traveled from Kashmir to Gilgit-Baltistan, and played a pivotal role in the conversion of the Khaplu ruler to Islam. Following his arrival, the ruler embraced Islam and permitted the construction of the mosque. However, some argue that the mosque was built two decades earlier, during the time of Sufi mystic Syed Noor Baksh's influence.

The architecture of the Chaqchan mosque is a blend of Tibetan, Persian and Mughal style of architecture. Architecturally, the mosque consists of a two-story cubic complex: Semi-basement, ground floor with a turret atop. The perimetral walls of the cubic structure are composed of wooden slabs stacked to form a frame with its void spaces daubed with clay or mud. This method of construction is one of the oldest known for making a weatherproof structure and it is also suitable for harsh winter conditions. The mosque presents one of the best arts of carving in woodwork.

Currently, Muhammad Zakriya serves as the imam of the mosque. His family has been entrusted with the responsibility of leading the prayers and overseeing the religious affairs for the past 400 years.

Researched for IRVI by Mariam Rehman

At the Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), we believe in understanding the legacies of our past to unravel present identity of the people of the Indus. As part of this journey, we’re starting the Mosque series to explore the rich traditions of Islamic architecture. It is because architectural religious sites like the Bhong Masjid in Pakistan serve as powerful embodiments of the connection between Religion and identity by reflecting spiritual devotion, shaping cultural expression of collective identity and communal values.

Bhong masjid, a symbol of the rich architectural marvel is situated in the village of Bhong, Tehsil Sadiqabad, District Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan. It was designed and constructed over a period of nearly 50 years (1932-1982) and won the Aga Khan Award for its Architectural brilliance in 1986.

The story of Bhong Mosque dates back to 1932 when Sardar Rais Ghazi Mohammad Indhar, a prominent social and political personality and a landlord of a large estate, initiated its construction. Rais envisioned a mosque that would not only serve as a place of worship but also as a symbol of cultural pride and architectural excellence. Thus, Bhong masjid is the work of specialists gathered from all over Pakistan and India (master masons and craftsmen from Rajasthan, calligraphers and painters from Karachi). The construction of the Masjid was under control of Master Abdul Hameed, who worked to make Bhong masjid, Pakistan’s one of the most intriguing mosques.

The mosque was initially a complex consisted of a small mosque but was later converted to a prayer hall and a library for women, madrassa and residential dormitories for students and visitors. Over the 50 years of its evolution, the Bhong Mosque complex has generated jobs and trained approximately 1000 workers and craft men in indigenous crafts.

Formally, the mosque reflects the traditional regional style, with its three ribbed domes and eight minarets accenting the corners and entrance. In addition, Rais Ghazi borrowed western colonial elements of 1740s and stylistic elements from monuments in Lahore, Iran, Spain and Turkey. Materials used in the construction range from the traditional teak, ivory, marble, colored glass, onyx, glazed tile work, fresco, mirror work, gilded tracery, ceramics, calligraphy work etc.

Architectural religious sites like the Bhong Masjid in Pakistan serve as powerful embodiments of the connection between Religion and identity by reflecting spiritual devotion, shaping cultural expressions of collective identity and communal values.

Researched for IRVI by Mariam Rehman

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), our mission is to explore and unravel the roots of our identity, recognizing that understanding who we are today requires a deep dive into the past. To truly grasp the essence of this identity, we turn to the history of religions in the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), examining how spiritual beliefs shaped the lives and spiritual identity of its people.

The Indus Valley Civilization (3300BCE to 1300BCE), had a distinct religious system and has been a melting point of several religious influences:

1- IVC spiritual traditions like Proto-Shiva, sacred animal worship, and purification rituals still resonate in Hinduism and Buddhism today.

2- Jainism’s early roots trace back to the Indus in the 6th century, with its first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha, influencing spiritual thought in Sindh, Gujarat, and Taxila through Jain traders and monks.

3- The Indo-Aryan migration (1500 BCE) introduced Vedic traditions, laying the foundation for Hinduism in the region.

4- Buddhism thrived under Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) in Gandhara (Peshawar, Taxila, Swat, and Punjab) with stupas and monasteries flourishing across Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan.

5- Zoroastrian influence (6th century BCE) during the Achaemenid Persian rule left its mark on Sindh and Balochistan, with fire temples and Zoroastrian traditions still preserved by Karachi’s Parsi community.

6- Islam arrived in 711 CE, through Muhammad bin Qasim’s conquest of Sindh, shaping a new spiritual identity through Sufism, mosques, and shrines, merging faith with local traditions.

7- Sikhism (15th century CE) founded by Guru Nanak emerged as a reformist movement, spreading across Punjab and Sindh, with Sikh Gurus fostering spiritual unity through Gurdwaras and Sikh teachings.

By studying these religious influences, IRVI seeks to unravel the spiritual identity of its people, tracing how their beliefs evolved through interactions within different timelines. And with these learnings we aim to bridge the past with the present, offering insights into the beliefs that continue to resonate in the region’s cultural and spiritual landscape.

At Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI), our mission is to explore and unravel the roots of our identity, recognizing that understanding who we are today requires a deep dive into the past. To truly grasp the essence of this identity, we turn to the history of religions in the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), examining how spiritual beliefs shaped the lives and spiritual identity of its people.

The Silk Road profoundly influenced the crafts and artistic traditions in Pakistan, serving as a conduit for cultural and artistic exchanges that shaped the region's heritage. Blue-and-white porcelain, with cobalt decorations introduced by Persian potters, began appearing in China around the 13th century CE. By the 15th century, this style had spread to Southeast Asia, influencing Pakistani ceramics. In Sindh and Multan, artisans adapted these designs, creating Kashi work.

The practice of faience manufacture, involving glazed ceramics, was present in specialized workshops like those in Hala and Multan. Although faience is now less common, its techniques contributed to the evolution of glazed ceramics, shaped by Silk Road trade.

Among the most notable contributions brought to the region were the exquisite textile traditions that travelled from China, Central Asia, and Persia. Silk weaving became a hallmark of cities. Mastery of silk weaving evolved into techniques such as the Jamawar and Brocade, where intricate patterns in gold and silver threads created opulent garments.

Kashmir, a crucial Silk Road trade center, gained fame for its textiles, including woolen shawls and elaborate embroidery techniques such as Sozni (needlepoint), Aari (hook embroidery), and Kari (threadwork). The region received Pashm (wool) from Central Asia's steppes, felts from Kirghiz nomads, Kirmiz (used in papier-mâché and rugs) from Armenia, gold Tillas from Bukbara and Kokand, Russian gold thread Atnuf, white lead from Kashgar, as well as tea, silk, and precious stones. The introduction of Central Asian styles and techniques significantly enhanced Kashmiri crafts, a development further supported by Emperor Akbar, who brought Central Asian weavers to Kashmir, integrating new weaving methods.

Chain stitching, an notable and classical embroidery technique whose history can be dated back to existence of Han tombs (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), reached the local craftsmen and can be seen employed in Kantope and Gao Takiya stitches.

In southeastern Pakistan, the Silk Road spurred the growth of traditional crafts such as Sindhi embroidery, Khes (woven fabric), Sussi (a type of fabric), and Farasi (a type of garment). The region's crafts were greatly influenced by the Silk Road's artistic exchanges.

Ajrak block printing, known for its deep indigo and crimson hues, developed from a mix of local techniques and Central Asian influences. The geometric and repetitive patterns in Ajrak have origins in Persian and Turkish designs but have evolved and become a distinct symbol of Sindhi identity. The addition of mirror work from Persia further enriched Sindh's textiles, significant in Tharparkar's textiles reflecting both light and the region's complex cultural heritage.

The Silk Road played a crucial role in the dissemination of stucco tracery, an ornamental technique featuring complex plaster patterns, from the Middle East to Asia, including what is now Pakistan

The artistic exchanges along the Silk Route went beyond textiles and pottery, significantly impacting jewelry making.

Semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli from the Afghan and Tibetan mountains were widely traded and incorporated into traditional jewelry in Pakistani centers such as Peshawar and Gilgit, blending Central Asian and subcontinental styles.

Henna art, which was well-established in Persian and Central Asian art by the 10th century, spread to Western China and subsequently to Pakistan via the Silk Road, fostering the development of henna's traditional use and artistic expression in the region.

Persian miniature painting, which thrived during the Safavid era in Iran (16th to 18th centuries), was deeply influenced by styles from China, India, and Central Asia, thanks to Silk Road exchanges. This interaction helped shape the distinctive Mughal miniature style, combining local traditions with diverse Asian influences.

Today, the influence of Silk Road crafts is still evident in Pakistan. Artisans continue to blend ancient techniques in their work. Carpet weaving, influenced by Persian designs, remains a prominent craft in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Baluchistan. Islamic calligraphy, introduced via the Silk Road, has evolved into a significant art form in Pakistan, reflected in various modern contexts and integrating with architectural design.

Researched by Rameen A. for IRVI.

Honoured to have our founder Zain Mustafa be a participant at this launch event as a panelist:

“Zain Mustafa, an architect and educationist, spoke on the importance of heritage and why it should matter to the people at present. “People are quite interested in their history and identity as to who they are and where they came from. Therefore, such projects are of much importance and value,” he said.

Had a wonderful experience speaking at this event about my journey bringing to me to where I am today with @cubeedutours & Indus River Valley Institute (IRVI) in a simple 20 minutes talk to the students about their career options, following their heart, soul, developing their own voices and building an empathetic osmotic architectural set of permeable boundaries for themselves.

Allowing themselves to grow and learn. Not being suffocated by irrelevant or obsolete social expectations and norms. Crafting their own lives choices with a solid value system to be able to give back to anyone they come across, build memories, share in life’s joys, laughter and most of all, with an honest authentic take on life. To be able to love all the little things that many may think don’t matter, but actually do matter immensely to the quality of one’s life. To be motivational inspiration for others and become better future leaders of Pakistan!

A giant round of applause with much gratitude for the invitation to attend a superbly organised event by Basit and Ayyans team, Flora Mahmood and the admin at @sicas_dha6 Bravo & kudos to you all!

IRVI’s 2024 Recap & Looking Ahead to 2025:

As we step into a new year, we reflect on the growth and milestones of IRVI—a project born from over a decade of educational experiences at heritage sites across Pakistan. Our journey began with Cube Edutours, connecting with communities who have stewarded these sites for generations, and over time, evolved into IRVI.

What we’ve accomplished so far, thanks to the support of many passionate contributors, includes:

• A Directory of people working in Pakistan’s cultural and heritage space
• A curated list of 500+ reference books on the region’s history and heritage
• The launch of our newsletter, highlighting individuals and organizations preserving Pakistan’s cultural heritage
• The Manchar Lake project, focused on eco-sensitive tourism for the Mohanna community
• Our internship program fostering new talent in cultural preservation
• Continuing our Edutours, bridging education and heritage preservation
• Speaking at events, sharing insights on Pakistan’s diverse cultural legacy
• Offering advisory to organizations seeking practical ways to achieve social impact through culture
• Articles published on IRVI’s platform, including insights on sustainable tourism
• Two artist residencies supporting creative engagement with heritage (Fall 2022 & Fall 2023)

All these efforts are a small contribution towards fostering collaboration and knowledge-sharing, particularly across the countries linked by the ancient Silk Road and Indus River Valley.

Looking ahead to 2025, we aim to build on these foundations by:

• Strengthening partnerships and collaborations with more communities and organizations
• Expanding artisan involvement in preserving local crafts and knowledge

We’re particularly excited about collaborating with organizations in the following sectors:

• Cultural heritage preservation (NGOs, local foundations, government agencies)
• Sustainable tourism and eco-friendly initiatives
• Educational institutions working on cultural studies, history, and sustainability
• Creative industries (artists, curators, architects, designers)
• Social impact organizations focused on rural development and community empowerment
• Regional collaborations with institutions in countries along the Indus River, Silk Road, and Central Asia

None of this would be possible without the incredible individuals and communities who have supported us. IRVI’s mission remains grounded in humility and the belief that true change comes from collective action.

We look forward to what we can achieve together in 2025!

Bridging the Past and Future: AI Meets Pakistan’s Cultural Heritage

In 2025, we’re opening a new chapter for Pakistan’s cultural heritage—where tradition meets cutting-edge innovation, and we need YOU to be part of it.

At Indus River Valley Institute, we’ve spent 12 years preserving Pakistan’s architectural and cultural gems, working with over 50 heritage sites. Our focus has always been on safeguarding architecture, folk music, textiles, indigenous crafts, and local traditions. Now, we’re embracing AI and collaboration to ensure these treasures are preserved and celebrated in the digital age.

We’re seeking partners, collaborators, funding organizations, volunteers, and experts to help us bring this vision to life, including:

AI-Powered Virtual Heritage Tours: Partnering with Google Arts & Culture, Microsoft AI, or IBM Watson to create immersive virtual experiences that bring Pakistan’s heritage to global audiences.

Predictive Preservation with AI:
Collaborating with UNESCO, The British Council, and local universities for AI-driven heritage conservation.

Community Empowerment:
If you specialize in AI for social good, indigenous crafts, or digital education, we want to work with you to create tools that help local communities share and preserve their legacies.

Funding Partners:
Seeking support from USAID, The World Bank, PTDC, Cultural Survival, or private foundations focused on heritage and sustainable development.

Educational Collaborations:
We’re excited to collaborate with universities in Pakistan and across the Silk Road region, including LUMS, Karachi University, Quaid-i-Azam University, NCA, and more. International institutions like Tashkent State Institute, Beijing Foreign Studies University, and others offer incredible cross-border collaboration in heritage studies and AI.

This year, we aim to build a collaborative network of tech companies, academic institutions, local communities, and international organizations to revolutionize the way we preserve, share, and celebrate Pakistan’s cultural legacy.

If you’re passionate about AI innovation, cultural preservation, or sustainable development, let’s connect! Together, we can shape a future where Pakistan’s heritage is accessible, celebrated, and preserved for generations to come.

Please reach out to explore partnerships, collaborations, or volunteer opportunities. Let’s make 2025 a year of transformative cultural preservation.

Reflecting on over a decade of Heritage Education & Exploration:

As 2024 comes to a close, Zain Mustafa ‘s “Cube Edutours”, a division of the Indus River Valley Institute, reflects on over a decade of dedicated work in architectural heritage education. Since its inception in 2012, Cube Edutours has been leading history enthusiasts on a journey through the ancient history of modern Pakistan, with a particular focus on the River Indus and its deep connections to the Silk Road. This region has long been a crossroads of civilizations, from the Scythians to Alexander the Great’s Greeks, and many others.

However, the work of Cube Edutours goes beyond conventional written history, much of which has been shaped by Western or colonial perspectives. At the core of the Institute’s mission is the belief that true heritage narratives lie not only in written records but also in the buildings, local storytelling, music, mysticism, myths, food, textiles, and crafts that have been passed down through generations. These living traditions offer a far richer, more authentic understanding of Pakistan’s cultural identity.

In addition to its educational tours, Cube Edutours has played a key role in the establishment of Pakistan’s first culture & heritage think tank, the Indus River Valley Institute. The Institute seeks to reshape the narrative around Pakistan’s past, exploring the depth and complexity of its history while recognizing the significant role of the region in shaping global culture.

The value of this work extends beyond the local context, shedding light on Pakistan’s cultural genetics and its place in the global heritage network. The shared history of trade, migration, and knowledge exchange between Pakistan and neighboring regions offers critical insights into our collective past, impacting not only the countries in the region but also the broader global community.

As the Institute looks to the future, Cube Edutours invites individuals, organizations, and institutions passionate about cultural heritage, history, and identity to collaborate, contribute, and join in this important mission. Whether through partnerships, research, or joint projects, the power of collective action can help preserve and promote the shared heritage of Pakistan and the world.

Together, we can rewrite the narrative, explore our roots, and build a future that celebrates the richness of our shared history.

“Pedigree matters.” – Iftikhar Arif (poet)

As I stand before the great bath at Mohenjodaro, one of the most awe-inspiring remnants of ancient urban planning in the Indus Valley Civilization, I am reminded of the immense legacy we inherit from this land. The India River Valley is home to one of the world’s earliest and most sophisticated urban designs—remarkably ahead of its time. This is our pedigree.

Today, we need to consider how we can continue this legacy—not just in architecture and urban development, but in our cultural identity. Just as the great civilizations of the past built cities of ingenuity and purpose, we too must craft a “pedagogical pedigree” that honors and nurtures our roots. By deepening our understanding of this history, we empower future generations to shape a vibrant, sustainable, and culturally rich Pakistan.

Let’s build our future with a clear vision rooted in the wisdom of our past.

Ph: Sheikh Javed, Mohenjodaro

An intense trip as introduction to Pakistan’s contemporary art landscape within the context of its ancient cultural history along the mighty mother Sindhu, River Indus with IRVI founder Zain Mustafa

With a combination of Afield team members from Paris, the group of 15 professionals brought with them an erudite global set of experiences in art collection, curation, architecture, South Asian knowledge of people and culture along with some roots in Caracas, Senegal and Indonesia. It was a superb group to show places, talk context, decolonisation, reindigenization, earth, land and much more as we drove around Lahore through the Biennale and then from Karachi’s Biennale to Yasmin Lari’s zero carbon village in Mirpur Khas.

The group consisted of: Phil Kier, Mimi Brown, Thamara Corm, Nicholas Trembley, Vincent Worms, Shirley Surya, Allegra Presenti, Filipa Cesar, Elisa Silva, Dicky Taknedare, Ina Thiam, Diana Campbell, Sandra Terdjman, Chantal Wong & Abi Tariq

(Bios can be provided upon request)

At IRVI, we hope that this trip was just the tip of the iceberg and that a series of continuing projects will be conceived, born and grown from the initial magic created between the group and the catalytic conversations which connected each attendee at a visceral level to Pakistan’s rich cultural history.

Al-Khwarizmi, often hailed as the “father of algebra,” was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, and geographer whose works laid the foundation for many modern mathematical concepts. Here are some of his key insights and inventions:

1. Algebra: Al-Khwarizmi’s most influential work, Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabala (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing), introduced systematic methods for solving linear and quadratic equations. His approach to algebra was novel because it was expressed in general terms, moving beyond specific calculations and applying general rules to different problems. The term “algebra” itself is derived from “al-jabr,” one of the terms in his title, meaning “completion.”

2. Algorithm: The term “algorithm” comes from the Latinized form of his name, Al-Khwarizmi (Algoritmi). His methods for calculations and procedures were highly systematic, setting the stage for modern algorithmic thinking. This concept is central to computer science, where algorithms provide the foundation for computational processes.

3. Decimal Number System: Al-Khwarizmi played a significant role in popularizing the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in the Islamic world and Europe, which includes the concept of positional notation and the use of zero. This system was far more efficient than Roman numerals, allowing for more advanced calculations and paving the way for modern mathematics and science.

4. Trigonometry and Astronomy: In his work on astronomy, Al-Khwarizmi contributed to the development of trigonometric tables, especially those for the sine function, which were essential for astronomical calculations and later applications in various fields. He produced astronomical tables, called zij, which included calculations and data used for determining planetary positions, eclipses, and times of day. His tables influenced both Islamic and European astronomers.

5. Geography: Al-Khwarizmi’s Kitab Surat al-Ard (The Book of the Image of the Earth) was one of the most detailed geographic works of his time. Building on Ptolemy’s work, he corrected and expanded geographical knowledge by measuring the coordinates of cities, distances, and directions with increased accuracy. His work contributed to advancements in cartography and navigational methods.

6. Applied Mathematics: Al-Khwarizmi’s work included practical applications, such as rules for inheritance, trade, and land division, which were significant for Islamic society. He provided mathematical solutions for real-world problems, reflecting a focus on practical as well as theoretical aspects of math.

Al-Khwarizmi’s legacy is profound. By advancing algebra, systematizing mathematical methods, and popularizing the decimal system, he made foundational contributions that still impact fields ranging from mathematics to computer science and astronomy today.

As part of Irvi's Cultural Heritage Program Amneh Shaikh-Farooqui CEO of Polly and Other stories found her time with the women of the Mohanna community particularly enriching, especially aboard their boats. She noted that many of these women rarely interact beyond the confines of their floating homes, relying heavily on the information brought to them by the men in their lives. And how this isolation has preserved their culture in a unique and untouched form.

Since Amneh's Polly and Other Stories is not just about commerce, it’s about celebrating the rich cultural heritage of Pakistan and transforming traditional crafts into luxury items that are highly valued globally. She empowered the women to use the power of crafts to preserve their cultural identity while fostering economic independence.

A Heritage Cell heritagecell.dapned project with workshop conducted in collaboration with irvi.institute who designed the workshop. Funded through the britishcouncilpakistan britishcouncil & dcmsgovuk as one of the first 6 projects in Pakistan.

Proud to celebrate the remarkable contributions of five high school students from Headstart School Kuri who interned with us at IRVI this summer! Their dedication and creativity were instrumental in developing impactful materials for our tourism training workshop at Manchar Lake, benefiting the indigenous fisher folks living on houseboats.

Congratulations on earning your certificates! Your hard work and innovative ideas will leave a lasting impact on the community.

A Heritage Cell @heritagecell.dapned project with workshop conducted in collaboration with @irvi.institute who designed the workshop. Funded through the @britishcouncilpakistan @britishcouncil & @dcmsgovuk as one of the first 6 projects in Pakistan.

On INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY: A successful meeting to discuss key GI, cultural heritage markers as trademarks of history along the River Indus in Pakistan between IPO Pakistan Chairman Farukh Amil & IRVI Founder Zain Mustafa.

This is the first step in charting a road map for research, documentation, data collection and the creation of a digital library of all heritage signature items across Pakistan (tangible & intangible) using the last 12+ years of IRVIs Edutours work which has already accumulated a vast body of work on the above topic.

• Architectural heritage sites
• indigenous building materials
• ancient construction technology and tools
• pottery & patterns
• wood work
• textiles patterns & colours
• dying techniques & embroideries
• jewellery & gemstones
• metalwork
• music & musical instruments
• traditional & folk dance
• clothing and costumes
• culinary arts, ingredients and agriculture
• language
• folklore & mythology
• calligraphy
• stone carving
• frescoes
• kashikari & tile work
• seeds, fruits and flowers

We look forward to developing a supportive, working relationship with IPO Pakistan’s team led by their visionary Chairman and Umme Salma Raza Zaidi who understand the urgency and immediate need for this work to be done and made this meeting happen.

In addition to the sustainable practices, IRVI's workshop also provided valuable training in effective use of social media. IRVI collaborated with Social Media specialist Abdullah Quadir to develop social media expertise among the Mohanna community. Who communicated to them in their native language Sindhi, keeping the cultural finesse intact for better understanding.

The participants were equipped with essential social media skills, learning how to document and frame and share their interactions and heritage with a broader audience online, ensuring their cultural story reaches a global platform.

A Heritage Cell @heritagecell.dapned project with workshop conducted in collaboration with @irvi.institute who designed the workshop. Funded through the @britishcouncilpakistan @britishcouncil & @dcmsgovuk as one of the first 6 projects in Pakistan.

Zain Mustafa, founder of IRVI and Cubeedutours, empowered Mohanna community with Tour Guide training, blend ing cultural heritage with eco-friendly and sustainable tourism.

During the session, Zain shared comprehensive manuals specifically designed for the Mohanna community. These manuals contained detailed information about their cultural practices, history, and the significance of their indigenous lifestyle. The focus was on teaching the participants how to effectively communicate this heritage to visitor.

A Heritage Cell @heritagecell.dapned project with workshop conducted in collaboration with @irvi.institute who designed the workshop. Funded through the @britishcouncilpakistan @britishcouncil & @dcmsgovuk as one of the first 6 projects in Pakistan.

Zain Mustafa, founder IRVI & Cube EduTour, delivered an impactful lecture on “Sustainable Tourism” near Manchar Lake, in collaboration with NED Heritage Cell. This transformative workshop aimed to empower the Mohanna community by equipping them with the knowledge and tools necessary for sustainable tourism practices and the critical role it plays in preserving indigenous communities.

A key focus of the workshop was developing the Mohannas' expertise in tour guiding. Zain shared practical techniques for marketing their unique, sustainable services, such as showcasing their iconic boat houses to tourists and teaching them how to do the same.

Participants were also introduced to culinary techniques that maintain the essence of their traditional seafood dishes, providing tourists with an authentic yet sustainable dining experience. Additionally, boat rides were discussed as a potential eco-friendly attraction.

The workshop also delved into the creation of local handicrafts, including fishing nets and traditional quilts (Rillis), boats, carved pieces of boats, straw caps further enhancing the Mohannas' ability to share their heritage with the world.

To conclude the session, branded straw caps, sustainable badges, and ‘rumaals’ were distributed, symbolizing the workshop’s commitment to preserving both culture and the environment.

A Heritage Cell @heritagecell.dapned project with workshop conducted in collaboration with @irvi.institute who designed the workshop. Funded through the @britishcouncilpakistan @britishcouncil & @dcmsgovuk as one of the first 6 projects in Pakistan.

The game of kings and the king of games" is how people refer to polo, in Gilgit Baltistan and Chitral. The word "Polo," which originates from the Balti language, meaning "wooden ball." Perhaps the oldest team sport in history to be documented is polo. Chaugan, sometimes known as polo, was brought to Persia in 600 BC by Central Asian Aryan tribes. Through the nomadic Aryan tribes, it made its way to Gilgit Baltistan. These rival Central Asian tribes used Polo as a training tool for the King's best cavalry. Polo was a national sport of Persia and was played widely by the nobles later in the sixth century.

According to Chitral history, first formal polo matches took place in 1914 at Shandur. This occurred during the last week of July 1914, when H.H. Shujaul Mulk, the then-ruler, was camping in the upper Chitral. This time, the late Murad Khan, the Raja of Gizar, visited Gilgit with a British political official to honor King Shujaul. Polo was played on the uneven turf at the time because the polo ground had not yet been built. In 1936, Evelyn Hey Cobb, a British administrator in Gilgit, took the initiative to build the Polo Ground. With the approval of Chitral's ruler, he ordered Mian Niat Qabool, to carry out the construction. He built the ground with the aid of the local Chitrali population. The first person to play on the ground under the moonlight was Mr. Cobb. Moonlit Polo Ground, or "Mas Junali" in Khowar, is how the ground came to be called.

The rough version of polo appears to be a tug-of-war between two groups of people wearing disparate colored shirts rather than the formalized equestrian sport played by British officers and the bearers of their colonial past. The game has horse-to-horse collisions, locked sticks, and daredevil players who tumble precariously amid the deafening rhythm of drums and local melodies. It appears that there are no regulations, and any offenses or unethical behavior are avoided. There are apparently no rules and offences and foul play is abstained on an ethical basis.

Baltistan's version of polo is unique in its own right. Chitral and Gilgit have long played Free-style Mountain polo, a form closest to its original roots. However, the way locals play differs slightly from the traditional polo seen in other parts of the world. Known as "Balti polo," this version features six players per team, instead of the usual four. The horses used in the game, referred as "ponies," are tiny, well-trained, and extremely agile, thus rendering them ideal for the sport.

For the most of the year, the pass is inhabited to munching yaks, but it comes active during the tournament. Shandur Pass, at 11,000 feet above sea level, was chosen as the site because it was regarded as a ridge between heaven and hell.

The match is divided into two 25-minute halves, separated by a 10-minute rest. Only one polo pony is permitted per player, and if a player or pony becomes wounded and leaves the field, the opposing side must lower its strength by one player. Introducing a new pony is not permitted because it would provide an unfair advantage. There are no referees, and the game is played with a straightforward motto: there are no rules. This lack of formal rules often results in chaos, leading to injuries and, in some cases, death during the tournament.

On September 7, 2018, Chitral defeated Gilgit for the fourth time in a row in the finals at Shandur Polo Ground. The Chitral team was captained by the perennial captain, Shahzada Sikander Ul Mulk, who, at the age of 60, played the sport with greater zeal than many younger players. His leadership and abilities led Chitral to its fourth consecutive victory under his captaincy. As president of the Chitral Polo Association, he was also instrumental in selecting players for all Chitral teams, guiding them to victory in nearly every match.

Polo has evolved over time to become a fundamental part of Gilgit-Baltistan's culture. The sport's historical ties to the Balti royal dynasty helped it gain popularity in the area. The Rajas, or Balti kings, fiercely supported polo and held competitions to demonstrate their supremacy and authority while also providing entertainment.

It is worth noting that Polo, an expensive hobby to maintain, has been associated with the middle and upper classes in recent British history, particularly given its origins in Britain with the militia.

Horses have long been popular among the inhabitants of Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, and most homes in a village used to own them. People hold limited amounts of land in the narrow valley, which has dwindled more as decades have passed and lands have been divided among them.

Polo's decline is due to the fact that only a few people in a hamlet can afford to meet their fodder requirements. Another reason for the reduction is that keeping horses is a full-time job. It requires you to be present all the time. People are not wealthy, and everyone must work to make a life. The third reason is that horse prices in the market are skyrocketing.

In terms of horse quality, there is a difference between international and Pakistani horses. Because horses account for more than half of the game, individuals must recognize this and invest in horse power, as it is extremely difficult to enhance the overall quality of the game without them.

There are no size restrictions for the horses. The term pony has been used since World War I, when the restrictions were lifted. However, the pony is said to represent 60 to 75 percent of a player's ability. Originally, only Thoroughbreds were employed, but mixed-breed horses are increasingly widespread. The indigenous horses of Pakistan are known as purebred "desi horses". These are utilized for riding, tent pegging, and polo.

Central Asia, particularly the area which is known as modern-day Uzbekistan, was pivotal to the ancient Silk Road and through it played a big role in the evolution of Pakistani textiles. This road was a collection of routes that contributed to the interchange of goods and knowledge between different civilisations over a period of more than 1500 years. The two main oasis cities of Samarkand and Bukhara were found here due to the strategically central place occupied by the region.

Evidence of this prestigious status is further established by the great merchant and traveller, Marco Polo built a base here to trade with China easily. This stature as an economic hub also led to the neighbouring areas, particularly the subcontinent, becoming major recipients of cultural products. Uzbek textiles and garments along with the cloth production process were exported during the Mughal rule.

In the present, Uzbek garments remain influential as the patterns used on the vibrant ikat coats are still prevalent in Pakistan. From carpets and tapestries to traditional clothing, many contain references to the ikat pattern. Scholarship has theorised that the preference shown for ikat in much of the global Muslim world is due to its geometric nature. Instead of anthropomorphic figures, ikat contained aesthetically pleasing abstract designs which were perceived to be symbolic of the infinite nature of God.

Aside from ikat, ajrak patterns prevalent in Sindh also have a connection to Central Asia as they have been inspired by the geometric schema pervasive in that region. Traces of Uzbek influence in the Baburid empire also led to the popularisation of Kashmiri shawls which included particular forms of indigenous embroidery. Further cross-cultural exchange is evident in the form of modern shalwar kameez which are a nod to tunics traditionally worn in Uzbekistan. Thus, the Silk Road has managed to have an enduring impact on the cultural milieu of Pakistan.

Research for IRVI by Haniya Naveed

The influence of the Silk Road on Pakistan's tile work is perhaps most evident in regions like Balochistan, which served as a crucial link between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The tile work in Balochistan often features a confluence of Persian, Central Asian, and local Indian styles, resulting in a unique blend of artistic traditions. The region's artisans were exposed to various techniques and motifs, which they adapted and integrated into their own work. The use of vibrant blue and turquoise colours, alongside intricate geometric and floral patterns, is a hallmark of this cultural fusion. This blend of styles is a direct result of the region's position along the Silk Road, where goods, people, and ideas flowed freely.

Today, Pakistan's tile work continues to evolve, with modern artists and artisans drawing inspiration from traditional designs while incorporating contemporary elements. The preservation of these traditional techniques has become a priority, with efforts to maintain and restore historical sites that showcase this rich heritage. This continued interest in tile work not only honours the past but also ensures that these artistic traditions remain a vibrant part of Pakistan's cultural landscape. The tile work of Pakistan, from its ancient origins to its modern expressions, serves as a testament to the country's rich history and its role as a crossroads of cultures along the Silk Road. This artistic legacy, characterized by a blend of local and foreign influences, continues to inspire and captivate, reflecting a deep appreciation for beauty and craftsmanship.

Researched For IRVI by Rameen A.

The regional variations in tile work across Pakistan reflect the country's diverse cultural landscape. In Multan, the city's historical association with the art of tile making is evident in its distinctive style. The Multani tiles are known for their deep blue and white colours, which are achieved through the “kashi kari” technique. These tiles often feature complex floral and geometric patterns, which have been refined over centuries. The artisans of Multan have also been skilled in “naqashi”, a technique involving intricate line work that adds depth and detail to the designs. Similarly, the region of Sindh, particularly in Hala, has developed a unique tile-making tradition. Sindhi tiles are characterized by their bright, vibrant colours and intricate designs. The artisans in this region adapted Persian techniques to create their own styles, resulting in a rich palette and complex patterns. The Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta is a prime example of this vibrant tile work, showcasing a wide array of colors and designs.

In Lahore, extensive multicolored tiles and frescoes, illustrate a combination of Persian and Central Asian, influences. The use of colour in Lahore's tile work is particularly notable, with a preference for deep blues, greens, and yellows, creating a visually striking contrast against the city's brick architecture. These regional styles not only highlight the technical prowess of local artisans but also reflect the cultural exchanges that took place along the Silk Road, where materials, techniques, and ideas were freely traded and adapted.

Additionally, in Sindh particularly in cities like Thatta and Hala, the tradition of tile work has been deeply influenced by the cultural exchanges facilitated by the Silk Road. The tile-making tradition involved the use of zellij, a mosaic technique that involves assembling small, individually cut pieces of tiles to create elaborate geometric patterns as well as more complex haft-rang (seven colors) technique.

Researched For IRVI by Rameen A.

The tile work in Pakistan is a rich tapestry woven from the cultural and artistic influences carried along the Silk Road, a historic network of trade routes connecting the East and West. This influence began as early as the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE), where simple ceramic works and pottery reflected a burgeoning skill in creating geometric designs. As time passed, the region saw the introduction of more complex techniques and styles, particularly during the Islamic period starting in the 7th century. The influx of Persian and Central Asian artisans brought with them the art of glazing and intricate patterns, notably the “haft-rang” (seven colors) technique. This method allowed for vibrant, multi-colored designs, often incorporating floral motifs and calligraphic elements, creating a fusion of local traditions with Persian aesthetics.

The Mughal era, spanning from the 16th to the 19th century, marked a significant period in the evolution of tile work in Pakistan. The Mughals, with their roots in the Timurid dynasty of Central Asia, brought with them a distinctive architectural and artistic style. They introduced the use of blue and white tiles, a hallmark of Timurid influence, which can be seen in various historical monuments such as the Shah Jahan Mosque. During this period, techniques like “kashi kari” (multicolored tile work) and “naqashi” (fine line work) were refined, blending Persian floral designs with intricate geometric patterns. This era witnessed the pinnacle of tile artistry, with vibrant and detailed decorations becoming a staple in architectural embellishments.

Researched For IRVI by Rameen A.

Pakistan and Afghanistan share a complex and lengthy history. The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the earliest significant urban civilizations around the Indus River, extended into parts of present-day Afghanistan. Cities such as Kabul, Balkh, Herat, Kandahar, and Bamyan were major Silk Road crossings, facilitating the flow of trade, culture, religions, syncretic philosophies, and technologies.

Cultural interactions, notably those with Afghanistan, have influenced Pakistani fashion in many ways. Afghan embroidery and intricate patterns have influenced Pakistani fashion, particularly in traditional wear. Embroidered waistcoats, shawls, and the use of vibrant colors are common in both Afghan and Pakistani attire.

Both Pakistani and Afghani fashion and attire are manifestations of their distinct civilizations. Afghanistan's Islamic past and ethnic makeup have a big impact on the country's traditional attire. The Pashtun people are an ethnic group that resides on both sides of the current border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is still up for debate and known as the Durand line of 1896. A knee-length shirt (kamiz), a waistcoat (waskat), and pants (partug) with a drawstring make up a traditional man's attire. The typical headwear worn by Pashtuns is a cap (khwalay/rakhchina), which is frequently wrapped in a turban (pagray/lungay/langota). As a result, the Pashtuns of Afghanistan who are of the same ethnicity have a great influence on their attire.

In a similar vein, The Baluch reside close to the borders of Pakistan and Iran in southern Afghanistan. The predominant male attire comprises the shalwar kamiz, a well-known garment among several ethnic communities residing in Afghanistan and Pakistan. It comprises shalwar pants and a long shirt with a front opening called kamiz. They frequently also wear a big cotton shoulder scarf, known as a pushti. They may dress in an overcoat (qaba), a vest (sadri), and a wool blanket (sal) during the cooler months.

Researched For IRVI by Rameen A.

Among the myriads of civilizations, the influence of Turkish traditions on the clothing of Pakistan stands out prominently. The Silk Road, a historic network of trade routes facilitated this influence. The Ottoman Empire was a major producer of luxurious fabrics such as silk, brocade, and velvet. Through the Silk Road, Turkish textiles, designs, and techniques made their way to the subcontinent, including modern-day Pakistan, leaving an indelible mark on the region's sartorial landscape

Turkish textiles were renowned for their elaborate motifs, intricate patterns, and superior craftsmanship. Floral patterns, arabesques, and geometric designs. One of the most enduring Turkish design influences on Pakistani clothing is the "buti" or "boteh" motif, which evolved into what we now recognize as the paisley pattern. This design became a staple in traditional Pakistani textiles, particularly in the intricate shawls and dupattas that are still popular today.

Turkish artisans were masters of weaving and dyeing. The double-ikat weaving technique, known as "kemha" in Turkish, inspired the development of similar techniques in Pakistan, leading to the creation of richly patterned fabrics. Additionally, the art of gold thread embroidery, or "zardozi," was refined by Turkish methods, resulting in the luxurious embellishments seen in Pakistani bridal wear and formal attire.

Turkish clothing styles also had a profound impact on Pakistani attire. Elements such as flowing robes, layered garments, and decorative embellishments found their way into Pakistani fashion, blending seamlessly with local traditions. This cross-cultural exchange is evident in the intricate Balochi embroidery and mirror work, which demonstrate a synthesis of influences, including those from Turkey. These decorative techniques have become integral to Pakistani clothing, adding a touch of elegance and cultural richness to traditional garments.

The Persian influence on Pakistani clothing is deeply rooted in the history of the Silk Road, a vast network of trade routes that facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and culture. Through Silk Road, Persian traders introduced luxurious fabrics, intricate designs, and advanced weaving techniques to South Asia and pakistan, enriching local textile production. Persian brocade and velvet, often incorporating gold and silver threads, became popular for both clothing and furnishings. Persian motifs like the gul-u-bulbul (rose and nightingale) and paisley patterns were integrated into Pakistani textiles, influencing traditional clothing such as shalwar kameez and bridal wear. Persian dyeing and printing techniques also contributed to the vibrant palette of Pakistani textiles.

The Persian influence is particularly strong in regions like Punjab and Sindh. Punjab embraced Persian weaving techniques and motifs, evident in its intricate embroidery and luxurious fabrics. Sindh, famous for its ajrak and sindhi embroidery, shows significant Persian influence in its intricate patterns and vibrant colors.

The Persian influence on Pakistani clothing is a testament to the cultural exchanges facilitated by the Silk Road. Persian textile techniques, motifs, and designs have enriched Pakistani sartorial traditions, creating a unique fusion that thrives today.

The rich tapestry of Pakistani clothing has been significantly influenced by various cultures over centuries, with the Silk Road being a crucial conduit. Among the most impactful influences is China, whose contributions to Pakistani textiles and fashion are profound and enduring.

The Silk Road was a channel for exchanging technologies and techniques. Pakistani artisans embraced Chinese methods of sericulture (silk farming), intricate weaving, and embroidery. Dye and pigment technology traveled along the Silk Road, enriching textile patterns and colors.

Interaction between Chinese and local artisans led to a fusion of styles. Traditional Chinese garments influenced new clothing styles in Pakistan. The intricate embroidery in Pakistani shawls and garments traces back to techniques brought by Chinese traders.

The Silk Road facilitated a rich exchange of cultural and artistic traditions, leaving a lasting impact on Pakistan's clothing and textile industry. Chinese influence helped shape the vibrant and diverse sartorial heritage celebrated in Pakistani fashion today.

The Indus Valley Civilization (circa 2500 BCE) is one of the world's earliest and most sophisticated urban cultures. Located in what is now Pakistan and northwest India, this ancient civilization laid the foundations for many aspects of South Asian culture, including its clothing traditions. The influence of the Indus Valley Civilization on Pakistani clothing is profound, providing the roots for textile production, fashion aesthetics, and artisanal techniques that continue to evolve and thrive in modern Pakistan.

Archaeological finds from Harappa and Mohenjodaro reveal the advanced textile production of the Indus Valley people. They were among the first to cultivate cotton, spinning and weaving it into cloth. Men often wore a dhoti-like garment, while women wore long skirts and shawls, similar to the sari, adorned with intricate patterns.

Today, the legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization is evident in modern Pakistani attire. Cotton remains a staple, and traditional garments like the shalwar kameez reflect ancient clothing styles. Techniques such as dyeing and embroidery, like phulkari and mirror work, have evolved but still bear ancient influences. Modern Pakistani jewelry also echoes the intricate designs of ancient craftsmanship.

The Indus Valley Civilization has left a lasting mark on Pakistani fashion and textiles, enriching the cultural heritage with its historical contributions.

Pakistan, with its rich cultural heritage and diverse population, has a vibrant history of clothing that reflects its intricate past. The attire worn in Pakistan today is a testament to centuries of cultural exchange, trade, and influence from neighboring regions, significantly shaped by the Silk Road trade routes.

The history of Pakistani clothing dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization (circa 2500 BCE), one of the world's earliest urban cultures. Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro have revealed that the inhabitants used cotton textiles and intricate weaving techniques.

The Silk Road, also played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and sartorial landscape of Pakistan. As traders traversed these routes, they brought with them not only goods but also ideas, styles, and technologies that influenced local clothing traditions. Chinese silk, known for its luxurious texture, became highly sought after in South Asia, significantly impacting the local textile production techniques. From China came not only silk but also intricate embroidery patterns and vibrant colors. Nepal and India contributed traditional garments like the shalwar kameez and embroidery techniques such as phulkari. Persian influences introduced intricate embroidery styles and motifs like paisley, while Central Asia (Uzbekistan) brought ikat weaving techniques. Afghan tribes influenced local dresses with heavy embroidery and mirror work, and Turkish motifs added further diversity to textile patterns.

The clothing of Pakistan is a rich mosaic of various cultural influences, each adding its unique flavor to the vibrant tapestry of Pakistani fashion. The Silk Road was instrumental in facilitating these exchanges.

Mughal cuisine, originating from the royal kitchens of the Mughal Empire, has significantly influenced the food cultures of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. This culinary style is a unique blend of flavors from the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and the Middle East. The Mughal emperors, originally from Central Asia, brought with them a love for lavish feasts and a refined palate. This resulted in a gastronomic revolution that continues to captivate food enthusiasts today.

Mughal cuisine is renowned for its rich and aromatic flavors. The extensive use of spices like cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, and saffron gives a distinctive taste to the dishes. Popular Mughlai dishes like biryani, kebabs, and korma exemplify the lavishness of this cuisine.

In India, Mughal cuisine has seamlessly integrated into various regional cuisines, resulting in unique and delightful culinary variations. In the northern regions of India, especially in cities like Delhi and Lucknow, the legacy of the Mughal emperors can be seen in the famous Awadhi cuisine.

In Pakistan, Mughal cuisine found its way into the country, leaving an indelible mark on the country’s culinary heritage. The incorporation of Mughlai spices, cooking methods, and ingredients has elevated Pakistani cuisine to new heights, making it a favorite among food enthusiasts worldwide.

While there is less documented evidence of the direct influence of Mughal cuisine on Afghanistan, it's important to note that the Mughal Empire had strong cultural and trade ties with the region. The exchange of goods and ideas likely influenced Afghan cuisine, introducing Mughal cooking techniques and ingredients.

The influence of Mughal cuisine on the culinary traditions of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan is a testament to the enduring legacy of the Mughal Empire. This rich and diverse cuisine continues to captivate food lovers around the world, offering a tantalizing array of dishes that cater to every palate.

The Silk Road, a historic trade route, was instrumental in fostering a rich cultural and culinary fusion. Pakistani cuisine, influenced by Afghan traditions, exemplifies this exchange through shared ingredients and dishes, illustrating the profound impact of this ancient trade network.

Central to both Afghan and Pakistani cuisines are rice dishes such as Afghan Kabuli Pulao and Pakistani Pulao and Biryani. These dishes emphasize the importance of rice and spices, integral components transported along the Silk Road. Spices like saffron, turmeric, cumin, and coriander were common trade items, now essential to both culinary traditions.

Yogurt is another common ingredient, appearing in various forms in both cuisines. Its versatility is showcased in dishes ranging from savory sauces to refreshing beverages. Additionally, slow-cooked stews like Afghan Shorwa and Pakistani Nihari highlight the culinary technique of allowing flavors to meld over time, a method cherished in both cultures.

Grilled meats are a hallmark of both Afghan and Pakistani culinary traditions. Afghan Kebabs and Pakistani Seekh Kebabs feature marinated meats grilled over open flames, often accompanied by fresh salads and naan. This shared love for grilled dishes underscores the culinary links forged through centuries of interaction and exchange.

Bread also serves as a culinary bridge between the two cultures. Afghan Naan-e-Afghani and Pakistani Naan are essential accompaniments to meals, both traditionally baked in tandoor ovens. This shared baking technique reflects the deep-rooted connections between Afghan and Pakistani food traditions.

The culinary ties between Pakistan and Afghanistan, forged through centuries of Silk Road trade, have resulted in a rich tapestry of shared and adapted traditions. This fusion not only showcases a shared heritage but also highlights the dynamic nature of culinary evolution driven by cultural exchanges along the Silk Road.